Service types in different areas applications - section Geology, Services and livelihoods of people in traditional communities Types of Services Scope of Application...
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All topics in this section:
In different countries of the world
Chapter 1. Services and livelihoods of people in traditional communities 1.1. Occupational differentiation and social roles in primitive culture
public practice
Chapter 4. Theoretical analysis service activities 4.1. Methodological foundations and interdisciplinary nature
And the criteria for its effectiveness
Concepts, schools and approaches Model of the organization in the aspect: development of the enterprise of the dominant function of management
Dependence of service activity on geographical, settlement and demographic factors
The relationship of service activities with geolandscape, soil and climatic conditions of life is mediated by the needs that these conditions generate in society. man in history
Changing the role of service activities in economic and social development
Over the past 25-30 years in the world economy, as well as in the economic practice of different countries, the role and importance of the tertiary sector has changed markedly. Below we consider the objective factors
Service culture
The culture of service is understood as a system of reference labor standards, high spiritual values and ethics of behavior, the principles of which are consistent with both the national traditions of the country and modern
Service sector
Chapter 10. Development of Russian entrepreneurship in the service sector in the transition period 10.1. Features of entrepreneurship in the service sector and
Individual-personal and social-corporate prerequisites for the development of the service business
In the development of service business in the field, much depends not only on objective economic, legal, administrative and organizational conditions, but also on professional, business, personal qualities.
Production management
A modern service enterprise, like any other rationally regulated economic structure, is a certain system integrity, which is a synthesis of organizational and management
At the same time, the labor involved in material production directly creates a product, and the activity of workers in the branches of material services directly contributes to the use of the created products to meet social needs. Material production includes industry, construction, agriculture, forestry and water management; to material services - freight transport, industrial communications, trade in the part that is a continuation of production, public catering, material technical supply and marketing, manufacturing and repair of household items, etc.
Marxism-Leninism proceeds from the fact that the sphere of production, the natural and eternal condition of human life, is decisive in human activity. "The sphere where material values are created is the main sphere of society's life," the CPSU Program says. The labor of workers in the production sector ensures the satisfaction of the main material needs society, the total social product and national income are created here - the material basis of all types of activity covered by the non-productive sphere. The condition for the development of the latter is the dynamic and proportional development of the branches of the production sphere, the increase in the efficiency of social production, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the growth in the productivity of social labor, and the all-round improvement in the quality of work in all sectors of the national economy.
The economic situation of the region, the creation of proper conditions for the life and work of its population depends on the development of the production sector. The manufacturing sector is the basis for meeting human needs. Needs, in turn, play the role of stimulators of human activity.
The manufacturing industry is characterized by complexity. It consists of the means of production and people with production experience, objects of labor and means of labor. The technology of production expresses the interaction of the main factors of production, the ways in which a person influences the object of labor. People direct their activities to the manufacture of new types of products, master new technologies, use new materials. At the same time, they improve the organization of production, ensure the interaction of all factors involved in production, and the interaction of people in the production process.
The production sector includes: industry, agriculture, construction, transport, communications, trade and public catering, logistics, procurement.
The sectoral structure of industry includes a large number of specialized industries, which are formed taking into account the technological features of production, the homogeneity of the purpose of the final product, the similarity of the raw materials used to manufacture products, etc.
Modern classification industrial enterprises by type of activity provides for their distribution to enterprises:
extractive industry;
manufacturing industry;
production and distribution of electricity, gas and water.
The extractive industry includes enterprises extracting energy materials and enterprises extracting energy materials.
The manufacturing industry includes the oil refining and metallurgical industries, mechanical engineering, chemical and petrochemical industries, the production of wood and wood products, the printing industry, light industry, the food industry and the processing of agricultural products.
A separate component of the industry is the production and distribution of electricity, gas, and water.
The composition of agricultural production includes two complex sectors: crop production and animal husbandry. As part of crop production, the following specific sectors are distinguished as grain production, production of industrial crops, potato production, vegetable growing, viticulture, production of special crops, fodder production. As part of animal husbandry, there are: meat and dairy production, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry farming.
The transport industry includes the following types of transport: rail, road, water (sea, river), aviation, pipeline, urban electric transport (including the subway).
Production areas of activity
All sectors of the national economy are divided into two large areas: production and non-production. The existence of organizations belonging to the second group (culture, education, consumer services, management) is impossible without the successful development of enterprises of the first.This part of the national economy includes enterprises that carry out activities aimed at creating material wealth. Also, the organizations of this group sort, move, etc. The exact definition of the production sector is as follows: "The set of enterprises that manufacture a material product and provide material services."
The production sphere plays a very prominent role in the development of the national economy. It is the enterprises related to it that create national income and conditions for the development of non-material production.
There are the following main industries:
Industry,
Agriculture,
construction,
transport,
trade and catering,
logistics.
This industry includes enterprises engaged in the extraction and processing of raw materials, the manufacture of equipment, the production of energy, consumer goods, as well as other similar organizations that are the main part of such an area as the manufacturing sector.
The sectors of the economy related to industry are divided into:
Power industry. The enterprises included in this group are engaged in the development and transmission electrical energy, as well as control over its sale and consumption. Production of products of any kind without organizations carrying out such activities is impossible.
Metallurgy. This industry, in turn, is divided into two sub-sectors: non-ferrous and ferrous. The first includes enterprises engaged in the extraction of precious metals (gold, silver, platinum), diamonds, copper, nickel, etc. At the plants of the ferrous metallurgy industry, mainly steel and cast iron are produced.
fuel industry. The structure of this industry includes enterprises engaged in the extraction of coal, oil and gas.
Chemical industry. Technological productions of this type produce products for various purposes. The latter can be divided into four main categories: basic and specialty chemicals, consumer goods, life support products.
Timber industry. This group includes enterprises that harvest logs, produce sawn timber, as well as paper, pulp, matches, etc.
Mechanical engineering and metalworking. Factories in this area are engaged in the manufacture of equipment, tools and machines.
light industry. The enterprises of this group mainly produce consumer goods: clothing, footwear, furniture, etc.
Building materials industry. The main type of activity of factories and plants in this industry is the production of products intended for the construction of buildings and structures ( concrete mixtures, bricks, blocks, plasters, insulation, waterproofing, etc.
glass industry. The structure of this industry also includes factories for the production of porcelain and faience. The enterprises of this sub-sector produce dishes, sanitary ware, window glass, mirrors, etc.
All industrial enterprises are classified into two large groups:
Mining - mines, quarries, mines, wells.
Processing - combines, factories, workshops.
This is also a very important area of the state's economy, falling under the definition of "industrial sector". The sectors of the economy of this direction are primarily responsible for the production and partial processing food products. They are divided into two groups: animal husbandry and crop production.
The structure of the first includes enterprises engaged in:
Cattle breeding. Cultivation of large and small livestock makes it possible to provide the population with such important food products as meat and milk.
Pig breeding. The enterprises of this group supply lard and meat to the market.
Fur farming. Wearables are mainly made from the skins of small animals. A very large percentage of this production is exported.
Poultry farming. The agricultural enterprises of this group supply dietary meat, eggs and feathers to the market.
Crop production includes such sub-sectors as:
Growing cereals. This is the most important sub-sector Agriculture, the most developed in our country. Agricultural enterprises of this group of the production sector are engaged in the cultivation of wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, etc. The degree to which the population is provided with such important products as bread, flour, cereals depends on how effectively this industry is developed.
Vegetable growing. This type of activity in our country is carried out mainly by small and medium-sized organizations, as well as farms.
Fruit growing and viticulture. It is developed mainly in the southern regions of the country. The agricultural enterprises of this group supply fruits and wines to the market.
Plant growing also includes such sub-sectors as potato growing, flax growing, melon growing, etc.
Industry and agriculture are considered the main sectors of the manufacturing sector. However, an equally important role in the country's economy is played by enterprises and other groups that are in close interaction with them.
Organizations of this group are engaged in the construction of buildings and structures. It can be both household objects, and cultural, administrative or industrial. Besides, construction organizations develop projects of buildings and structures, carry out their reconstruction, expansion, overhaul, etc.
Absolutely all other branches of the production sphere interact with groups of enterprises of this type. Construction companies can work both on government orders and from specific organizations or individuals.
Organizations in this area of the national economy are responsible for the transportation of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products.
It includes the following industries:
Automobile transportation. Companies in this group mainly deliver goods over short distances.
Marine. This type of transport carries out mainly foreign trade transportation (oil and oil products). In addition, maritime companies serve remote areas of the country.
Rail transportation. Within the developed economic zone, trains are the main transport delivering goods over long distances.
Aviation. Companies in this area of the transport industry are mainly engaged in the transportation of perishable products.
The success of the functioning of enterprises in such industries as agriculture, industry, construction, etc. directly depends on the efficiency of the companies of the transport group. .
An equally important role in the country's economy is played by such industries as:
Wholesale;
retail;
catering.
Its subjects are enterprises and organizations involved in the sale of goods produced by industry and agriculture, as well as related works and services. Public catering establishments include canteens, barbecue houses, cafes, restaurants, pizzerias, bistros, etc.
The main activity of the subjects of this branch of the production sphere is the provision of enterprises in industry, agriculture, etc. working capital: components, containers, spare parts, equipment and tools that wear out quickly, etc. The logistics group also includes organizations involved in supply and marketing.
Thus, the branches of the production sphere, the definition of which was given at the beginning of this article, are the most important components of the national economy. The effectiveness of the development of the country's economy as a whole and, as a result, the growth of the welfare of its citizens directly depends on the success of the activities of their enterprises.
Branches of the production sphere
The economy consists of two areas:1. the production sphere or the sphere of material production;
2. non-manufacturing or service sectors.
Consider the signs by which the production and non-production spheres are distinguished. The defining feature of material production is the orientation of the labor of workers functioning in it to change the substance in order to adapt it to human needs.
The rest of the features follow from this property:
The objectification of the result of labor;
discrepancy between production and consumption in time and space.
Taking into account the above characteristics, a classification of economic sectors has been adopted, in which the sphere of material production includes all types of activities that create material wealth in the form of products, energy, storage, movement, sorting, packaging and other activities that continue the production process.
Thus, the following sectors of the economy belong to the manufacturing sector:
1. Industry;
2. Agriculture;
3. Forestry;
4. Construction;
5. Freight transport;
6. Communication (servicing enterprises in the manufacturing sector);
7. Trade and public catering;
8. Logistics;
9. Blanks;
10. Separate types activities.
The main distinguishing feature of the non-productive sphere is the focus of the work of workers directly on the person, on the social conditions in which a person lives and on the satisfaction of his spiritual needs.
The service industry includes:
1. Housing and communal services;
2. Household service population;
3. Passenger transport;
4. Communication (for servicing organizations of the non-productive sphere and the population);
5. Health care, Physical Culture and social security;
6. Education;
7. Culture and art;
8. Science and scientific service;
9. Lending and insurance;
10. Management;
11. Activities of political and public organizations.
In addition to industry, the branches of material production include agriculture, forestry, freight transport, communications, public catering, procurement, and other industries. However, the industry differs from them in a number of significant differences.
Industry differs from agriculture in that:
First, industry is based on man-made production technology, while agriculture is based on natural, biological processes;
secondly, industry differs from agriculture in the nature of the technology used, the organization of production and working conditions;
thirdly, industry is characterized by the continuity of production, the possibility of its implementation throughout the year, while agriculture depends on natural factors and has a pronounced, discontinuous, seasonal character.
Distinctive features industry and construction are due to the nature of the movement in space of funds, production products and labor. If in the process of production, industrial products move from one workplace to another, and the means of production and labor are relatively immobile, then the products of construction (buildings, structures), on the contrary, are tied to the place, and the means of production and jobs move. This distinguishes the industry with a shorter production cycle than in construction, a smaller volume of work in progress, mass production, etc.
The difference between industry and transport is expressed in the fact that the task of transport is to preserve the properties and quality of the transported goods, and the task of industry is to change the quality and properties of the processed objects of labor.
The production sphere is a set of sectors of the national economy and activities that create material wealth in the form of products, energy, in the form of moving goods, storing products, sorting, packaging and other functions that are a continuation of production in the sphere of circulation.
In the sphere of production, the gross social product and the national income are created. The labor expended at the enterprises of the production sphere is embodied in material goods - the means of production or consumer goods. The manufacturing sector includes industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (for servicing enterprises in the manufacturing sector), construction, water management (in part production activities), geology and exploration of subsoil (in terms of deep exploration drilling for oil and gas).
In trade, along with production functions (storage of goods, packaging, sorting, etc.), non-production functions associated with the commodity form of products (servicing the processes of buying and selling, the work of cashiers, etc.) are also performed. Due to the fact that production functions account for a significant share in trade, logistics and marketing, and procurement of agricultural products, these industries are classified as manufacturing. All-Union and republican economic bodies directly managing their constituent manufacturing enterprises, belong to the sphere of production (provided that the costs of maintaining these bodies are included in the cost of production of managed enterprises).
The procedure for attributing individual industries, enterprises and types of activity to the production sphere is determined by the All-Union classifier "Industries of the national economy". In 1985, of the total population employed in the national economy, 73.1% (approximately 95 million people) were employed in the branches of the production sphere.
With the growth of the productivity of social labor, the development of science, education, health care, and the service sector, the share of people employed in the manufacturing sector is gradually decreasing. The sphere of production is the decisive sphere of human activity; its development determines the possibilities for the growth of material well-being and the strengthening of the country's defense.
Implemented in accordance with the decisions of the 27th CPSU Congress, a set of measures to restructure the economic mechanism, investment policy, structural policy, accelerate scientific and technological progress is aimed primarily at the comprehensive development and improvement of the production sector, ensuring its compliance with the highest world level.
Manufacturing economics
In economic research, analysis usually uses such concepts as sphere, industry, sector of the economy. Social production in terms of participation in the creation of the total social product and national income is divided into two areas: material production and the non-productive sphere.Agriculture and forestry, construction, public catering, industry, freight transport, trade, information and computing services, communications are related to material production. Housing and communal services, healthcare, passenger transport, physical culture, public education, social security, culture and art, lending and insurance, the activities of the administrative apparatus, science and scientific services belong to the non-productive sphere.
The sectors of the economy are divided into industries. An industry is a group of qualitatively homogeneous economic units (enterprises, organizations, institutions), in the system of social division of labor characterized by special conditions production and homogeneous products and performing a specific function in the national economy.
For example, the sectors in which the commodities and means of production necessary for the life and development of society are created include the sphere of material production.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of the development of the social division of labor in the course of the historical process.
Each of the specialized industries is divided into complex industries and types of production. For example, there are about 15 large branches in the industry. These are electric power industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, fuel industry, chemical and petrochemical industry, timber, pulp and paper industry, mechanical engineering and metalworking, building materials industry, light and food industries, etc.
Specialized industries differ in varying degrees of differentiation of production. The further deepening of the specialization of production, the development of the economy and society leads to the formation of new industries and types of production. The processes of cooperation, integration of production, development of sustainable production links between industries lead to the creation of mixed industries and intersectoral complexes.
This is an integration structure that characterizes the interaction of various industries and their elements, different stages of production and distribution of the product. They can arise and develop between different industries and within a single industry. For example, as part of the industry there are metallurgical, fuel and energy, machine-building and other complexes. Construction and agro-industrial complexes differ in a more complex structure, since they combine different branches of the national economy.
Intersectoral national economic complexes are divided into functional and target ones. Target complexes differ by the criterion of participation in the creation of the final product and by the reproductive principle. Functional complexes are based on the criterion of specialization of the complex for a certain function. For example, infrastructure, investment, scientific and technical complexes.
Also, the complexes of the economy are divided into diversified and single-industry complexes, intersectoral scientific and technical complexes, territorial production complexes.
The constituent elements of each complex are grouped according to economic characteristics. Based on the system of national accounts, large sectors of the economy are divided.
A sector is a set of institutional units that are similar in economic goals, behavior and functions. For example, the enterprise sector, the sector public institutions, the household sector and the external sector. The enterprise sector is divided into financial and non-financial sectors. financial enterprises.
Businesses engaged in the production of goods and services for profit and non-profit organizations, not pursuing the purpose of making a profit, are united in the non-financial sector. They are also divided into public, private, national and foreign non-financial enterprises, depending on who controls their activities.
Institutional units engaged in financial intermediation cover the sector of financial enterprises.
Legislative, judicial and executive authorities, funds social security and the non-profit organizations they control are included in the government sector.
Households and the enterprises formed by them are included in the household sector.
The totality of institutional units - non-residents of a given country with economic ties, as well as embassies, consulates, international organizations, military bases located on the territory of a given country - this is all the external sector.
Depending on the degree of links with the market, the economy is divided into market and non-market sectors.
The market sector is the production of goods and services that are intended to be sold on the market at prices that affect the demand for these goods or services, as well as the barter exchange of goods and services, wages in kind and stocks of finished products.
The non-market sector is the production of goods and services for own consumption or provided free of charge to other consumers or at prices that do not affect demand.
There are mixed industries that provide market and non-market services.
The economy, according to international statistics, is divided into industries that produce goods and industries that provide services.
Manufacturing services
In economics, it is believed that all types of labor are productive in their functional content, therefore, the production sphere covers virtually all branches of material and non-material production. For modern economic theory The West is characterized by ignoring (of course, not universal) the problem of distinguishing between productive and unproductive labor from the point of view of the general economic content of labor functions. However, even from the characteristics of the main milestones in the history of economic thought, one can see that this problem has occupied the minds of representatives of various schools of political economy, since its inception.Without going into various interpretations of this problem, we only note that the position of A. Smith prevailed in Soviet economic science, according to which labor is productive only in material production, and labor in the non-material sphere is unproductive. In other words, the production sphere was identified with material production, and non-production - with non-material. True, not everyone shared this opinion in Soviet economic science.
It seems to us that all sectors, firstly, material production and, secondly, the service sector, should be included in the production sphere, since the labor employed in them creates use values in the form of material goods or services. After all, both material goods and services are not just external useful effects of the labor that created them, but precisely independent, i.e., special, peculiar effects, different from all other specific external useful effects.
Due to the uniqueness of each material good and each service, the features of the types of labor that produce them are also formed. These features are, firstly, qualitative, i.e., expressed in the specificity of the material and personal factors of production used in each of them and the technologies for their use, and secondly, quantitative, or represented by different amounts of resource costs necessary to create various products.
In contrast, unproductive types of labor do not create products (material goods and services), but the necessary conditions for the normal functioning of each and any production process, the entire economy and society as a whole. From this position, unproductive labor is a regulatory activity. Unproductive types of labor are valuable not in themselves, but because they regulate the productive types of labor and all social life, creating normal conditions for their flow.
Thus, the types of regulatory activities form a non-productive sphere. K. Marx called them pure costs, because they themselves do not create products, i.e., independent external beneficial effects.
Regulatory activities can be divided into three types:
1) net management costs (transaction costs of the superstructure);
2) net distribution costs - transactional distribution costs;
3) net circulation costs - transaction costs of circulation.
The superstructure costs (the transaction costs of the socio-political infrastructure) include:
1) ritual and cult procedures [French. procedure from lat. procedo - moving forward] and stereotypes of behavior that contribute to the maintenance of customs, habits and beliefs that, at the level of everyday consciousness of the people, daily govern individual, group and social life;
2) an ideology that reflects, with more or less inconsistency, the ordinary consciousness of the people and represents the theoretical and theological [from the Greek. theos - god and logos - word, doctrine] worldview level;
3) organizational and propaganda [from lat. propaganda - to be distributed] the activities of parties, political movements, religious entities and public, including trade union organizations that direct and interconnect social, economic and political interests different groups, layers, classes and nations;
4) rule-making of legislative institutions of public authority, the participants of which, being elected at the appropriate level of the state structure, become members of representative bodies that are most closely related to the dynamics of public aspirations and sentiments;
5) the judicial branch of public authority, which, through the prosecutor's office, the bar, the investigation, the system of various courts and correctional institutions, is called upon to eliminate deviations in the activities of various subjects from the current legislation through punishment for its violations;
6) the functioning of the army, internal affairs and state security agencies as power structures of the executive power is aimed at the direct protection of citizens, society and the state from encroachments on their rights and the existing regime, both from inside and outside the country;
7) the highest political institutions of the executive power, which, through the ministries, departments, territorial administrations entrusted to them, determine, within the framework of the legislation and for the sake of its implementation, the current and future goals of domestic and foreign policy, ways and means of achieving them, and also organize the implementation of the life of the corresponding course;
8) the realization of the property rights of individuals and legal entities, including the state with the hierarchy of its bodies, permeates the entire economic life, no matter what it is. Property relations that develop only about limited goods (first of all, resources, products and incomes that are rare in relation to the cash desires to use them, more precisely, "their useful properties") are expressed in the clash of the powers of various subjects claiming them. These powers are sanctioned [from sanctio - the strictest ruling] by all the above listed components of the costs of the superstructure, i.e. not only the named branches of state power, but also social psychology and ideology. The current regime of property rights assumes that each owner is endowed with a certain package of powers and that they are in a certain way If there is no such protection or it is weakened, as it is now in the CIS, then the creative motives of activity are suppressed by predatory ones.
The net distribution costs (to the transaction costs of the market infrastructure) include:
1) metrology, analysis of economic activity, accounting, reporting and office work, which document the movement of resources, products and income of all business entities;
2) sale and purchase activities, including marketing and advertising, ensure, in the conditions of commodity-money relations, the interconnection of production and consumption through the matching of supply and demand for objects that take a commodity form;
3) the costs of circulation of money and the functioning of the monetary system, which facilitates economic turnover;
4) credit relations that redistribute temporarily free cash on the principles of repayment, urgency and payment;
5) emission and circulation costs valuable papers coordinating and accelerating intersectoral, interregional and international transfer of resources and economic restructuring.
Net distribution costs (transaction costs of fiscal infrastructure) include:
1) audit, inspection, supervision and control over compliance with the established procedure and existing norms in the formation, distribution and expenditure of "resources, products and incomes;
2) a financial system consisting of various links through which the receipt, distribution and use of various funds of funds occurs;
3) personal, property and social insurance, stabilizing and guaranteeing the realization of the interests of insured individuals and legal entities;
4) the social security system and private charity, which redistribute income in favor of the needy in order to prevent the aggravation of social antagonisms;
5) the costs of collecting, distributing and using voluntary contributions from party, public and religious organizations.
That these types of labor and the costs associated with them are unproductive! content, by no means belittles their role, but only reflects the fact that they themselves do not create independent benefits. But on the other hand, these types of labor provide the necessary conditions for the normal flow of all production processes. Consequently, without them, various kinds of failures inevitably occur in production processes. Moreover, their special significance is emphasized by the fact that through control over them, regulation of all economic processes. Some of the unproductive types of labor are so closely intertwined with productive ones that when dividing the economy into production and non-production spheres, they cannot be distinguished from the first.
Unproductive types of labor should be distinguished from unproductive costs of productive labor. The latter include cases of production of defects, low-quality products and products that do not meet demand due to lagging behind the technical level and rapidly changing fashion. Here we are talking about the fact that potentially productive types of labor have not realized their productive potential.
Manufacturing factors
In order to conduct a special assessment of working conditions, the following harmful and (or) dangerous factors of the working environment are subject to research (testing) and measurement:1) physical factors - aerosols of predominantly fibrogenic action, noise, infrasound, air ultrasound, general and local vibration, non-ionizing radiation (electrostatic field, constant magnetic field, including hypogeomagnetic, electric and magnetic fields of industrial frequency (50 Hertz), alternating electromagnetic fields, including radio frequency and optical range (laser and ultraviolet), ionizing radiation, microclimate parameters (air temperature, relative humidity, air speed, infrared radiation), parameters of the light environment (artificial lighting (illuminance) of the working surface);
2) chemical factors - chemical substances and mixtures measured in the air of the working area and on the skin of workers, including some substances of a biological nature (antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, enzymes, protein preparations), which are obtained by chemical synthesis and (or) for content control of which methods are used chemical analysis;
3) biological factors - producing microorganisms, living cells and spores contained in bacterial preparations, pathogenic microorganisms - pathogens infectious diseases.
In order to conduct a special assessment of working conditions, the following harmful and (or) dangerous factors are subject to research (testing) and measurement labor process:
1) the severity of the labor process - indicators of physical load on the musculoskeletal system and on the functional systems of the worker's body;
2) the intensity of the labor process - indicators of sensory load on the central nervous system and sensory organs of the worker.
The testing laboratory (center) conducts research (tests) and measurements of the following harmful and (or) dangerous factors of the production environment and the labor process:
1) air temperature;
2) relative air humidity;
3) air speed;
4) intensity and exposure dose of infrared radiation;
5) the intensity of the alternating electric field of industrial frequency (50 Hertz);
6) the intensity of the alternating magnetic field of industrial frequency (50 Hertz);
7) the intensity of the alternating electric field of electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency range;
8) the intensity of the alternating magnetic field of electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency range;
9) the intensity of the electrostatic field and the constant magnetic field;
10) intensity of sources of ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength range of 200 - 400 nanometers;
11) energy illumination in the wavelength ranges UV-A, UV-B, UV-C;
12) energy exposure of laser radiation;
13) ambient dose equivalent rate of gamma radiation, X-ray and neutron radiation;
14) radioactive contamination industrial premises, elements production equipment, means personal protection and skin integuments of workers;
15) sound level;
16) total sound pressure level of infrasound;
17) air ultrasound;
18) general and local vibration;
19) illumination of the working surface;
20) the concentration of harmful chemicals, including substances of biological nature (antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, enzymes, protein preparations), which are obtained by chemical synthesis and (or) to control the content of which chemical analysis methods are used, as well as the concentration of mixtures of such substances in the air of the working area and on the skin of workers (in accordance with the scope of accreditation of the testing laboratory (center);
21) mass concentration of aerosols in the air of the working area;
22) the severity of the labor process (the length of the path of movement of the load, muscle effort, the mass of the goods being moved, the angle of inclination of the body of the worker's body and the number of inclinations per working day (shift), the time the load is held, the number of stereotyped working movements);
23) the intensity of the labor process of employees, labor function which:
a) consists in the dispatching of production processes, vehicle control (duration of concentrated observation, density of signals (light, sound) and messages per unit of time, the number of production objects of simultaneous observation, the load on the auditory analyzer, the time of active observation of the production process);
b) consists in servicing production processes of a conveyor type (the duration of a single operation, the number of elements (methods) required to implement a single operation);
c) associated with long-term work with optical devices;
d) is associated with a constant load on the vocal apparatus;
24) biological factors (in accordance with the scope of accreditation of the testing laboratory (center).
Specialties federal body executive power, performing the functions of developing and implementing state policy and legal regulation in the field of labor, together with the federal executive body, performing the functions of developing state policy and legal regulation in the relevant field of activity, State Corporation for Atomic Energy "Rosatom" in agreement with the federal executive body responsible for organizing and implementing federal state sanitary and epidemiological supervision, and taking into account the opinion of the Russian tripartite regulatory commission social and labor relations an additional list of harmful and (or) dangerous factors of the working environment and the labor process, subject to research (testing) and measurement during a special assessment of working conditions, may be established.
Material and production sphere
This area is most fully and comprehensively represented in the Marxist concept. The key abstract object of this concept is the concept of the mode of production. The concept of the mode of production is intended to answer the question: in what ways, in what forms do people carry out the production, exchange and distribution of material goods. In the mode of production, productive forces and production relations are distinguished. Productive forces characterize the relationship of people to nature, the way in which producers are connected with each other and with the means of labor (tools and production infrastructure) in their impact on the object of labor. The human and material (means of labor and the object of labor) components of the productive forces are systematically organized and include the relationship between people and the means of labor in the production-technological sense. The organizational and technological structure of production (division of labor, cooperation, etc.) characterizes the activities of people aimed at turning the object of labor into a product of labor.In addition to production-technological relations characterizing the method and forms of connecting people with each other, with the subject and means of labor, there are also production-economic relations that characterize the relationship of people about the production products of labor. These are relations of ownership, exchange and distribution. According to the Marxist concept, production and economic relations correspond to the nature and level of development of the productive forces. The mode of production determines, according to Marx, the social, political and spiritual spheres.
The material and production sphere is the basis of social life. Production is a way of existence of a person and society.
The structure of material production:
1) the sphere of direct production;
2) scope of distribution;
3) the sphere of exchange;
4) the sphere of consumption.
The main components of the material and production sphere:
Labor as a complex social phenomenon;
method of production of material goods;
regularities and mechanisms of functioning of the sphere as a whole.
Labor, production is not only a natural process, the process of interaction between society and nature, but also the basis for the formation of man himself as a social being, his separation from nature.
Labor is the dialectic of the material and the ideal, their continuous mutual transformation. The materiality of labor is to a certain extent connected with natural being, the ideality of labor stems from the fact that it is the activity of a person, a social subject endowed with consciousness and striving to achieve the set goals. The ideal through human activity is embodied in a change in the material factors of labor, which, in turn, reflected in the consciousness of the subject, become the basis of a new goal-setting of labor. The social result of labor is a person, society, social relations.
Labor activity is objective. At any point in history, it unfolds within the framework of a certain level of man's objective armament, embodied in the system of tools and means of production, within the framework of the development of man himself as a subject of labor.
The social nature of labor lies in its historical continuity of the growing needs of society in labor and its products, the continuity of the very life of the social subject of labor - the people, its conjugation with all aspects of life. People interact with each other not only because of the social division of labor, but also because in the process of labor they acquire and use knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by other people.
Labor, being the source of division and the core of production, is:
1) the process of interaction between man and nature, the active influence of people on the natural world;
2) purposeful creative activity of a person to meet his ever-growing, growing needs;
3) optimization of the creation, use and improvement of the means of production, technology, scientific knowledge;
4) improvement of the person himself as a subject of social production and personality.
Labor is always carried out within and through a certain form of society, which receives a practical embodiment in the mode of production. The mode of production is a concept that characterizes a specific type of production of the means necessary for the life of people (food, clothing, housing, tools of production), carried out in historically defined forms of social relations. The mode of production is one of the most important categories of historical materialism, since it characterizes the main sphere of social life - the sphere of material and production activity of people, determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. The structure of each historically depends on the mode of production. certain society, the process of its functioning and development. The history of social development is primarily the history of development and change in the mode of production, which determines the definition of all other structural elements of society.
Production is always carried out thanks to the dual process of interaction between the productive forces (content) and production relations (the socio-economic form of the production process). The mode of production is the social form and the way in which people produce the material goods necessary to satisfy their needs.
This is the main factor determining the development, interconnection and interaction of various aspects and spheres of public life: economics and politics, science and technology, ideology and culture, etc.
Productive forces are those forces with the help of which society influences nature and changes it; this is one of the aspects of the development of a social individual. The productive forces express man's relationship to nature, his ability to creatively use its wealth for personal and social interests. The productive forces exist and function only within social production. The level of development of production forces is manifested in the degree of human knowledge of the laws of nature and their use in production to achieve the goals.
In the productive forces, 3 elements can be distinguished: personal (people); material (tools of labor, in a broad sense - means of production); spiritual (science). The productive forces are the basis of the internal mode of production; all the features of the mode of production depend on the level of development of the productive forces. The source of the development of productive forces is the contradictions between the elements. The object of labor is that on which labor is directed; means of labor - that which serves as a conductor of influence on the object of labor: they form the means of production. In the means of labor, tools and means for storing objects of labor are distinguished. The product of labor is indirect.
An indicator of the development of productive forces is labor productivity. The most important factor in its growth is the creation of more productive tools and means of labor, technical progress. In the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, the role of science in society is changing, it becomes a direct productive force.
Production relations are relations between agents of production, ultimately between people in the process of production of means of subsistence. Production relations are primarily material in nature. Them feature- formation as necessary, depending not on the will of people, but on a specific historically achieved level of development of productive forces.
4 types of industrial relations:
Organizational - technical;
regarding the determination of the share and its receipt; exchange;
consumption - the use of the product (industrial and non-industrial);
based on property relations.
The interaction of the productive forces and production relations obeys the law of the correspondence of production relations to the nature and level of development of the productive forces. This law determines both the development of a given mode of production and the need to replace one mode of production with another.
The sources and driving forces for the development of production are the needs of people and the subsequent social division of labor, which ensures the progressive development of material production through the creation of new types of labor, its specialization and cooperation. A complex dialectical relationship is established between needs and production in society; needs affect the productive forces indirectly, through production relations. The activity of production relations lies in the fact that they generate in people certain incentives for activity.
Production areas of the economy
Social production is heterogeneous, therefore it includes several branches, the number and structure of which is constantly changing (due to the emergence of new types of production, etc. for other reasons).The branch of material production is a group of enterprises that have a common nature of their products and production process.
Those. individual branches of the sphere of material production unite enterprises and organizations on the basis of the homogeneity of the functions they perform or the homogeneity of manufactured products.
According to the current classification, the sphere of material production includes the following industries:
1. Industry;
2. Construction;
3. Agriculture;
4. Water management in terms of production activities;
5. Forestry;
6. Geology and exploration of subsoil in terms of deep exploration drilling for oil and natural gas;
7. Freight transport;
8. Communication in terms of servicing industrial enterprises;
9. Trade and public catering;
10. Logistics support;
11. Billet;
12. Other activities in the sphere of material production.
Since the production process includes all stages of reproduction until the moment of consumption of products, not only the first six sectors in which material goods are produced and created (industry, construction, agriculture, water, forestry, geology and exploration of mineral resources) belong to the production sphere. But the industries that bring the product to the consumer (freight transport, trade, logistics and procurement), as well as those that provide communication between industries, also belong to the manufacturing sector. Thus, these industries that provide storage, transportation, packaging, etc. increase the value of products created in industry and agriculture to an appropriate extent.
Let us consider in more detail each of the branches of material production.
The listed large branches of the sphere of material production, in turn, are divided into a number of branches and types of production.
Industry is the leading and largest branch of the national economy. Industry encompasses the extraction and procurement of material goods available in nature, and the further processing of material goods, both obtained by industry itself and produced in agriculture.
That. The industry combines two sub-sectors:
Mining;
processing.
The first is concerned with the extraction of products of nature that cannot be manufactured by man. Those. a characteristic feature of the extractive industry is that its subject of labor already exists in nature (this is the extraction of PI - coal, oil, ore mining, etc. industries, and hunting, and fishing, and logging, etc.), in while in manufacturing, the object of labor is the product of previous labour. The second group includes enterprises that process industrial and agricultural raw materials into New Product, as well as for the repair of industrial products.
Industry includes hundreds of thousands of large and small enterprises. Industrial enterprises and production associations are classified by type of production and industry.
An industry is a set of industrial enterprises and production associations that are homogeneous, primarily in terms of the purpose of the products they produce.
Thus, the main feature of classification by industry is the homogeneity of enterprises and associations in terms of their products. In some cases, when classifying, the characteristics of the homogeneity of the processed raw materials are also used (for example, enterprises that process cotton, collectively represent the cotton industry) and homogeneity technological process(for example, companies chemical industry).
In the modern classification of industries, groups of industries (aggregated industries) are distinguished:
Energy;
Fuel industry;
Ferrous metallurgy;
Non-ferrous metallurgy;
Chemical and petrochemical industry;
Mechanical engineering and metalworking;
Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industry;
Building materials industry;
Glass and porcelain-faience industry;
Light industry;
food industry;
Microbiological industry;
Compound feed industry;
Medical industry;
Printing industry;
Other industries.
Within these groups of industries, separate industries are distinguished. For example, in fuel industry coal, oil-producing, oil-refining, gas, peat and other industries stand out; in the food industry - fish, meat, sugar, bakery and other industries.
The classification of branches of industry is necessary for studying the correlations and connections of branches within industry and with other branches of the national economy; to systematically monitor the state and development of those industries that ensure technical progress and economic growth of the national economy.
Agriculture is a special branch of material production characterized, first of all, by the fact that in it the production process coincides with natural, natural production, as a result of which its products in kind again become an element of production (for example, grain is in the form of seeds an element of further production ( reproduction) of grain).
In accordance with this, agriculture includes: the reproduction of plant products; breeding and raising livestock, poultry, fish, bees, etc.; production of raw livestock products not associated with the slaughter of livestock and poultry (milk, eggs, wool, honey). As for the production of products related to the slaughter of livestock and poultry (meat, leather) and the processing of agricultural products (grinding flour, production of sour cream, cottage cheese, butter, etc.), these types of production activities do not belong to agriculture, but to industry. This is explained by the fact that in all these cases the process of production no longer coincides with natural reproduction, and the product in its natural form can no longer be an element of its own reproduction.
Agriculture consists of two groups of industries:
crop production;
animal husbandry.
Crop production and animal husbandry, in turn, consist of a number of industries. Thus, crop production includes the cultivation of grain and industrial crops, the cultivation of melons and vegetables, tubers, fruit and berry plantations, etc. Animal husbandry includes breeding different types livestock (pigs, horses, etc.), poultry, bees, etc.
The ratio of individual branches of agriculture shows the nature of agricultural production, its specialization (in a particular region, economy).
Construction - a feature of the industry is that in industry, raw materials are brought to enterprises, and finished products are taken away, and in construction, the enterprise itself delivers it to the construction site.
Construction is a branch of material production that produces fixed assets. During the construction process, the creation of fixed assets is carried out at the place of their future functioning; In this respect, construction differs from mechanical engineering, although in terms of its organization of technology and economics, modern construction is of an industrial nature.
Construction includes:
Construction of buildings and structures for industrial and non-industrial purposes;
Installation of equipment;
Design, design and survey, drilling, etc., carried out in the process of production of fixed assets. works related to the construction of certain facilities;
Capital repairs of buildings and structures, i.e. partial renewal of fixed assets created by construction in their natural form.
In accordance with the sectors of the economy in which construction is carried out, it is divided into:
Industrial engineering;
transport;
agricultural;
housing, etc.
In turn, industrial construction is divided into:
Construction of heavy industry enterprises;
construction of light enterprises, Food Industry etc.
Transport construction is divided into:
Railway;
road, etc.
Forestry - covers the cultivation of forests and maintaining them in a condition suitable for exploitation.
Forestry, like agriculture, contributes to the process of creation in kind by carrying out the work of laying, growing and maintaining forest stands (in contrast to the logging industry, whose task is the rational use of everything that has been grown in forestry). Along with the features inherent in all branches of agriculture, forestry has a specific feature - a long period of production (up to tens of years), including only a relatively small working period.
In the water sector, the sphere of material production includes the work of full-system water pipelines, as well as organizations for the operation of irrigation and reclamation systems.
Geology and exploration of the subsoil as a branch of the national economy in terms of deep exploration drilling for oil and natural gas belongs to the sphere of material production only if they are carried out at the expense of capital investments.
MTS, trade, public catering and procurement are industries that perform one function - bringing products from production to the consumer, but in relation to different types of material goods - means of production, consumer goods and agricultural raw materials.
Material and technical supply and marketing carry out the distribution and sale of the means of production, as well as the organization of their supply to various sectors of the national economy. In the process of MTS and sales, in addition to distribution and trading functions the functions of storing the means of production, their packaging, etc. are also carried out. Labor in the field of MTS and sales, completing the process of production of means of production, participates in the creation of a social product and, to the extent of its functions, increases the value of products.
Trade is a branch of the national economy that sells consumer goods, marketable products to the population.
Public catering is a branch of material production, at the enterprises of which industrial and agricultural products are processed into ready-made food or semi-finished products (which brings public catering closer to the manufacturing industry), retail sales of these products (which brings it closer to trade) and servicing the process of consumption of their products.
Purchasing organizations, carrying out the purchase of agricultural products (as one of the forms of trade in the country), storing and sorting them, perform a number of functions to complete the production of agricultural products. Thus, in the process of procurement, as in trade, the value of the finished product increases, and, to the extent that the production functions are carried out, the procurement belongs to the sphere of material production.
Thus, logistics and sales, trade and procurement are characterized by the fact that, along with production functions, non-production ones are also carried out in them. The assignment of these branches to material production in connection with the predominance of production functions in them does not mean that all the functions of these branches are recognized as production.
Freight transport is a branch of material production that transports products created in other sectors of the production sector. The transported product for freight transport is the subject of labor.
The transportation industry refers only to transport common use, i.e. independent transport companies doing work on the side. Movement of materials, semi-finished products, parts, etc. within the same enterprise, carried out with the help of “in-plant transport”, does not refer to the transport industry, but to those branches of production within which this transport operates.
Freight transport does not create new goods, but, completing the production process, participates in the creation of the value of the transported goods.
Passenger transport is not a branch of material production, since the transportation of passengers does not create new material goods and does not complete the production of already developed material goods. Therefore, passenger transport belongs to the non-productive sphere of the national economy.
Freight transport includes the following industries:
Railway transport;
Sea transport;
River transport;
Air Transport;
Automobile transport;
Pipeline transport (transfer of oil, oil products and gas through pipelines).
To freight transport along with the transportation of goods, there is a track economy, which is engaged in the repair and maintenance of public tracks (highways, railways, etc.) in proper condition.
Communication is a branch of the national economy that transmits messages. The sphere of material production includes only communication in terms of servicing production. In the sphere of material production, communication organizations perform two functions - the direct transmission of messages and the leasing of communication methods.
The branches of communication are:
postal service;
Telegraph communication;
Telephone communications;
Radio communication.
Communication in terms of servicing the population refers mainly to the non-productive sphere of the national economy. But the delivery of newspapers and magazines to your home is the transportation of products of the printing industry and therefore general rule belongs to the sphere of material production.
Other types of activities in the field of material production are scrap metal and recyclable collection points, the activities of editorial offices and publishing houses, film studios, recording and broadcasting studios, organizations for the collection of wild plants, domestic processing of raw materials in the subsidiary plots of the population and some other activities.
Spheres of industrial relations
Production relations - a set of material economic relations that do not depend on people's consciousness, which people enter into between themselves in the process of social production and the movement of a social product from production to consumption. Production relations are a necessary aspect of social production. “In production, people enter into relationships not only with nature. They cannot produce without uniting in a certain way for joint activity and for the mutual exchange of their activity. In order to produce, people enter into certain connections and relations, and only within the framework of these social relations and relations does their relation to nature exist, production takes place.In the process of labor, relations are formed that are determined by the needs of technology and the organization of production, for example, relations between workers of various specialties, between organizers and performers, associated with the technological division of labor within the production team or on the scale of society. These are production and technical relations. But in production, in addition to these relations, economic relations are also formed between people. Production-economic relations, or, as they are usually called, production relations, differ from production-technical relations in that they express the relations of people through their relations to the means of production, i.e., property relations.
Under public, collective property, the members of society are equal in relation to the means of production, and in the process of production there are relations of cooperation and mutual assistance between them. On the basis of private property, relations of exploitation of man by man are established between people, in which the owner pumps unpaid surplus labor from the direct producer and appropriates either the labor itself or its results. People deprived of all or the main means of production inevitably find themselves in economic dependence on the owners of the means of production, which predetermines the relationship of domination and subordination between them.
Public property appears in history in the form of the property of a clan, tribe, community, public or state property, collective-farm-cooperative property; private property manifested itself in history in the form of three main types: slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, which corresponded to the three main forms of exploitation of man by man. There is also private property of producers, based on personal labor, but this form is always subordinated to the relations of production that prevail in a given society.
In addition to the main forms of production relations, during the periods of the death of one and the emergence of another socio-economic formation, transitional production relations also arise, when elements of various types of production relations are combined within the same economic structure. For example, during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, within the framework of the patriarchal family, the remnants of tribal relations and the beginnings of slave-owning relations were combined. During the period of the disintegration of slave-owning relations in a number of countries, a colony arose, combining elements of slave-owning and feudal relations; during the period of transition from capitalism to socialism, certain economic forms combine relations based on collective and private property (state capitalism, mixed state-private enterprises, semi-socialist forms of cooperation in the countryside, etc.).
Property relations permeate all spheres of economic relations - production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods, and determine the distribution of the means of production and the distribution of people in the structure of social production (the class structure of society). Directly in the production process, various property relations find expression in the way the producer is connected with the means of production. Thus, in a capitalist society, the worker can unite with the means of production only by selling his labor power to the capitalist. In a socialist society, the means of production belong to the working people themselves. Here the socialist state acts as the owner of the main means of production. This determines both the nature of relations between people in the process of production and the forms of distribution of material goods.
Production relations give all social phenomena and society as a whole a historically determined social quality. The very singling out of production relations as objective, material relations independent of the consciousness of people from the totality of social relations constitutes a central point in the elaboration of a materialist understanding of history. In his work “On the Criticism of the Hegelian Philosophy of Law”, K. Marx came to the conclusion that property relations people form the basis of civil society. In the future, property relations were understood by Marx as relations that develop in the process of production. V. I. Lenin noted that in The Holy Family "... Marx approaches the basic idea of his entire" system "... - namely, the idea of social relations of production." In The German Ideology, Marx and Engels distinguish two aspects of production - the productive forces and the social relations of people in production dependent on them, which are defined in this work as "forms of communication." The term "relations of production" itself was developed by Marx later ("Manifesto of the Communist Party", etc.). The separation of economic relations of production from the totality of social relations was the basis of a scientific, objective approach to the analysis of the historical process. The relations of production provide an objective criterion for delimiting one stage of social development from another, for highlighting the common, repeating in the history of different countries and peoples that are at the same stage of social development, i.e., for highlighting specific historical types of society - socio-economic formations, and thereby open the way to the knowledge of the laws of development of human history.
Ignoring the relations of production within which labor is performed leads to the fact that every labor process is reduced to some general moments, and then historical epochs differ only in the level of technical equipment of labor, fundamental economic differences between different social formations disappear. This is the essence of the methodology of the so-called technological determinism, which has found its manifestation in the bourgeois theories of “stages of economic growth”, “single industrial society”, etc., which evaluate different societies only from the point of view of their level of technical development. At the same time, the denial of the dependence of production relations on the level of development of the productive forces leads to voluntarism and arbitrariness in politics.
Industrial relations are social form productive forces. Together they constitute the two sides of each mode of production and are related to each other according to the law of the correspondence of production relations to the nature and level of development of the productive forces. According to this law, relations of production are formed depending on the nature and level of development of the productive forces as a form of their functioning and development. In turn, production relations influence the development of productive forces, accelerating or hindering their development. In the course of this development, contradictions arise between the increased and changed productive forces and the obsolete production relations, which can be resolved only by changing the production relations and bringing them into line with the productive forces. In an antagonistic society, the resolution of this contradiction is carried out by a social revolution. The dialectic of productive forces and production relations reveals the causes of the self-movement of production and thus the essence of the entire historical process.
Being a form of development of the productive forces, production relations, being the primary material social relations, act as a basis in relation to ideology, ideological relations and institutions - the social superstructure (see Basis and superstructure). In the aggregate of all its social functions - both as a form of productive forces and as the basis of society - production relations form the economic structure of a social formation.
The production relations of the communist formation differ fundamentally from the production relations of all antagonistic formations in the dominance of social ownership of the means of production, the absence of exploitation and social antagonisms. They are the basis of the ideological and political unity of the whole society. The production relations of the communist formation have peculiar laws of their origin. They are not formed in the depths of the previous formation, but arise as a result of the socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which is used as a lever for transforming economic relations. The nature of the development of production relations in the communist formation is also qualitatively different from the development of production relations in previous societies. First, the contradictions that arise in the development of the socialist mode of production are resolved not by eliminating socialist production relations, but by developing them while maintaining their qualitative definiteness as relations of cooperation and mutual assistance. Secondly, in an antagonistic society, the contradictions between the productive forces and production relations were resolved in the interests of one social group(class) to the detriment of another, while under socialism they are resolved in the interests of the whole society.
The formation of socialist production relations begins in the transition period from capitalism to socialism, when private property is replaced by public property as a result of the expropriation of private property based on the appropriation of the labor of others, and the co-operation of the property of small producers based on personal labor. Socialist relations of production are characterized by the presence of two forms of public ownership of the means of production - state and cooperative - which determine relations of mutual assistance, collectivism, comradely cooperation of people free from exploitation, distribution according to the quantity and quality of labor. The development of socialist relations of production means their improvement and gradual development into communist relations of production on the basis and in the process of creating the material and technical base of communism. This process is seriously influenced by the scientific and technological revolution, its organic combination with the advantages of the socialist economic system. As the productive forces and labor productivity develop, the main thing becomes the gradual rapprochement and merging of the two forms of socialist property and the creation of a single public ownership of tools and means of production, the erasure of essential differences between town and country, between mental and physical labor, the erasure of social differences between workers and peasants. and the intelligentsia, a gradual transition from distribution according to work to distribution according to needs, the establishment of a complete social equality the all-round development of man himself.
The structure of the production sector
The production structure of an enterprise is all production units in the aggregate (services, workshops), as well as the types of relationships between these elements. It is influenced by the type and range of manufactured parts, the type and forms of production specialization, and the features of technological processes.At the same time, it is the technological processes that are the most important parameter on which the entire production structure of the enterprise organization depends.
The structure of the production activity of the enterprise is determined by a number of factors that are considered important economic indicators. We are talking, in particular, about the quality of manufactured goods, the growth of labor productivity, the value of production costs, efficiency of distribution and application of resources.
The production company performs key functions:
Takes care of the logistics of the production process;
organizes the labor activity of employees in the company and manages it;
produces products for industrial and personal use;
observes current standards, state laws, regulations;
sells and delivers goods to the consumer;
Serves products in the after-sales period;
takes care of the comprehensive development and increase in production volumes;
pays taxes, makes mandatory and voluntary payments and contributions to the budget and other financial bodies.
The production organization itself decides how to distribute and use the goods produced, the profit received, remaining after the deduction of taxes and other obligatory payments.
Quite often in the modern world, new companies appear and existing ones expand.
These processes are strongly influenced by the following factors:
Unsatisfied demand for goods, works and services is the most important parameter; if the products released by the enterprise turn out to be unclaimed, the consumer does not want to buy them, and the costs of the production process do not pay off, the company may go bankrupt;
the resources that a company needs to release a product is, first of all, the availability production base and raw materials;
appropriate stage of development of science and technical means in this manufacturing industry.
Production organizations, together with their teams, are the main links for the formation of a chain of sectoral and territorial complexes, the formation of departments and ministries. In the national economic complex, manufacturing companies are the main elements.
In accordance with the law of the Russian Federation, an enterprise operating in the manufacturing sector is fully responsible for its activities and all processes occurring in it. The activities of the organization should not interfere with the normal operation of other companies, adversely affect the living conditions of people living in nearby areas.
Note that the state authorities have no right to interfere with the implementation of the administrative and economic functions of the company. State authorities can only control how lawfully the company carries out economic activity, propose various solutions and require management to comply with applicable laws.
The production structure of the enterprise is different. However, all manufacturing companies, in fact, perform the same work - they produce and sell goods.
Structure production system An enterprise for normal functioning should consist of:
Bodies exercising management;
functional departments, laboratories, other non-production services;
workshops of the main production;
auxiliary and service warehouses and workshops;
other organizations (social, auxiliary).
The direction of work, the field of activity and production volumes in the company are determined by the composition, technological profile, scale of workshops, sections, workshops where the production process is carried out.
In the course of production, products go through several stages. Each stage is technologically homogeneous work, and it is they that are the basis for the division of production into various processes. Specialists of different profiles and qualifications are responsible for each of the processes.
Each leader is interested in the successful production and production structure of the enterprise. The organizational and production structures of the enterprise must be built reasonably. The quality of his work also depends on this.
The rational construction of the production process is very important here. This can be achieved by identifying the most efficient production structure, not forgetting the characteristics of the firm.
What is the characteristic of the production structure of the enterprise? The structure of the company is the ordered and interconnected elements in the aggregate. The relations between them are stable, ensuring the functioning and development of the components as a single structure.
The production structure of the enterprise includes the main elements in the form of workshops, sections and jobs.
Types of production are distinguished by how the production process is organized.
Here we can mention the following divisions in production:
Basically;
auxiliary;
serving.
The workshop is a key production unit, administratively separated, specializing in the production of certain components, parts, or carrying out the same purpose or technically homogeneous work.
There are always several sections in the workshops. Such sites are jobs grouped according to a certain attribute.
The workshops are divided into subdivisions of auxiliary and main production. Auxiliary shops are designed to provide conditions for the normal operation of the main ones. As for the main ones, there the products are turned into goods ready for sale.
There are also service shops that provide the above (main and auxiliary) vehicles, warehouses and technical support.
That is, the production structure of the enterprise consists of the main, auxiliary, service units and production facilities.
Shops of the main production, where products are directly manufactured for sale. The formation of the main divisions is carried out in accordance with the profile of the company. The process of formation is also influenced by specific types of goods, scale and production technologies.
The main tasks of the main workshops are: manufacturing products on time, reducing production costs, improving the quality of goods, finding and applying solutions for the rapid restructuring of the production process in connection with the changing market situation and customer needs. The solution of all these problems is facilitated by rational specialization and location of workshops, their cooperation and ensuring the proportionality of the production process from the first to the last operation.
The workshop specialization can be:
Subject (in separate workshops the main part or the entire production process for the creation of certain types of finished products is concentrated);
itemized (by unit) (each production unit is assigned the release of individual components);
technological (stage) (each workshop is responsible for a certain stage of production);
territorial (subdivisions remote from each other carry out the same work).
The main workshops can be:
procurement;
processing;
assembly.
The tasks of the workpiece workshops include the initial shaping of products (of such departments, among other things, the production structure of the enterprise consists; units cut workpieces, are engaged in stamping, casting and other similar works).
Processing workshops perform mechanical, thermal, chemical-thermal, galvanic processing of parts, weld them, varnish them, etc.
The tasks of assembly shops are the assembly, regulation, adjustment, testing of components, from which the finished product is subsequently assembled.
Auxiliary and service workshops, the main task of which is to serve production processes and solve various problems directly within the company.
The main task of auxiliary workshops is to create all conditions for a continuous work process in the main production.
Auxiliary - these are workshops and production sites that:
Manufacture, repair, adjust devices, fixtures, inventory;
control the operation and repair of equipment, monitor mechanisms, structures, buildings;
ensure the supply of heat and electricity, supervision and repair of electrical equipment and heating networks;
transport raw materials, materials, blanks, finished goods within the enterprise and outside it;
store products (warehouses).
The structure of the production activity of the enterprise serves as the basis for the development of the master plan, that is, the production location of services and divisions, communications and routes at the plant. Note that it is very important to ensure the directness material flows. The location of the workshops should correspond to the production stages.
If the company operates in an industrial sector, the production structure may be:
subject;
technological;
mixed (subject-technological).
At an enterprise with a subject structure, new main workshops and their sections are built according to the following principle: each department is responsible for the manufacture of a particular part or a certain group of spare parts.
As a rule, the assembly and mechanical assembly shops of factories that produce products in large volumes or products in large batches prefer to use the subject structure.
An example of such a structure in a car manufacturing enterprise is the shops that produce chassis, engines, gearboxes, bodies; at the plant for the construction of machine tools - workshops that produce spindles, shafts, body parts, beds.
If we are talking about a shoe manufacturing company, as an example of a unit where the subject structure of production activities is applied, we can cite welted shoe shops, etc.
The subject structure has many serious advantages. The main advantages are in limiting the form of communication between production departments, reducing the ways of moving components, simplifying and reducing the cost of inter-shop and shop transport, reducing the duration of the production cycle, and increasing the responsibility of specialists for the quality of work.
Within the framework of the subject structure, the workshops are equipped with the necessary equipment in the course of the technological process, and in the manufacture of products they use machine tools, dies, tools, devices with high productivity. Thanks to all the measures listed above, the enterprise increases production volumes, and the cost of manufactured parts decreases.
The technological production structure of the enterprise implies a clear division on the basis of technology. So, a plant with such a structure has a foundry, mechanical, assembly, forging and stamping shops - that is, all departments are technologically isolated from each other. Thanks to the creation of this structure, it becomes much easier to manage a site or a workshop, as well as to distribute specialists, to reorganize production from one product range to another.
The technological production structure of the enterprise also has disadvantages. Thus, there may be counter routes for the movement of components, production links between workshops become more complicated, and expenses for equipment changeover increase.
In addition, with such a structure, it is rather problematic to use high-performance special machines, tools and fixtures. Because of all this, labor productivity is increasing at a low rate, and the cost of products is decreasing.
A mixed (subject-technological) structure implies the presence in one enterprise of the main divisions, the principle of organization of which is both subject and technological.
For example, the structure of procurement workshops (forging, foundry, pressing) is usually technological, mechanical assembly - subject.
As a rule, companies with a mixed structure operate in engineering, light industry (furniture, footwear, clothing companies) and some other areas. The production, built according to this principle, has a number of advantages. Transportation inside the workshops is less frequent, the duration is reduced production cycle production of products, labor productivity increases, the cost of parts decreases.
It is very important in what sequence the enterprise performs actions in the external and internal environment. On this depends its activity as a whole. Here it is necessary to consider time series, that is, the temporal values of the company's appeal to the sources of its activities, and indicators on the basis of which one can judge the place of the organization in market environment. To get a better idea of how things are today, you should compare the performance of the enterprise with the performance of similar firms that are successfully operating at the moment. It is also necessary to fix what is the structure of the production activity of the enterprise. This depends on the sequence economic activity organizations.
The economy of the company should be formed as the economy of individual complex elements, if we consider this process from a structural point of view. How proportionally the links should be related to each other depends on the ratio of the production capacity of the workshops and sections combined to manufacture the final product.
The mixed (subject-technological) structure of production activity is increasingly used in enterprises, which allows saving living and materialized labor, comprehensive use of materials and raw materials, and the most efficient distribution of financial resources.
With the structural and technological homogeneity of products, favorable prerequisites appear for deepening the specialization of the company, as well as for automated and in-line production of goods.
An important role in the structure of the enterprise is assigned to stocks that provide the production process. Thanks to them, the organization is functioning. That is, if a shortage of certain materials or raw materials is detected during production, production stocks compensate for the shortage. This contributes to the formation of a closed production cycle.
The primary link in the organization of the production process is the workplace. This is an integral and key, inseparable part of the production process, which is served by one or more employees.
The company's performance indicators are largely determined by how jobs are organized and located in departments, how justified their number and specialization are, and how interaction is coordinated.
When specialists in production are distributed to their jobs, as a rule, groups, services or teams are formed. Creation of brigades is carried out in order to solve problems involving joint activities.
The team may consist of workers with different qualifications, different professional areas and skills. Composition, like organizational form the team, which can be complex or specialized, is determined by the nature, complexity and characteristics of the production process, as well as the complexity of the work.
Groups, links, brigades form sectors and sections, and those, in turn, are combined into departments, workshops and laboratories. The last three elements form the structure of the organization.
The workplace at the enterprise is organized taking into account the peculiarities of the production process and the type of work performed. The workplace of a specialist must fully comply with ergonomic and technical standards. Here is everything the employee needs, what he needs in the process labor activity. The specialist spends most of his working time there.
The production cycle is called the calendar period during which raw materials, blanks or other workpieces go through all stages of production or a certain stage of it, becoming a finished product. The production cycle is expressed in calendar days or in hours (if we are talking about the low labor intensity of the product).
The most efficient form of organization of production from an economic point of view is the in-line production process.
The flow form of production is characterized by the following features:
One or a limited number of product names are assigned to a specific group of jobs;
technological and auxiliary operations are rhythmically repeated in time;
jobs are specialized;
workplaces and equipment are located along the technological process;
for interoperational transfer of parts, special vehicles.
Flow production and the production structure of the enterprise involve the implementation of such principles as:
Rhythm;
parallelism;
specialization;
proportionality;
direct flow;
continuity.
In mass production, the highest productivity of labor activity, a decrease in the cost of production and a reduction in the production cycle are observed. The basis (primary link) of in-line production is the production line.
When production lines are designed and organized, indicators are calculated, work schedules, lines and methods for carrying out technological operations are determined.
The production line cycle is the period between the release of products (parts, assembly products) and the last operation or their launch for the first operation of the production line.
a) Features of services
Features of the organization of the production of services are due to the following properties:
Contact with the consumer and participation of the client;
Combining the stages of customer satisfaction and service provision;
The impossibility of storing the service;
Variability in demand for services;
Heterogeneity of the final result;
Heterogeneity of requirements for the nature and content of the labor process;
Intangibility of the service for the client;
Difficulty in guaranteeing the quality of the service;
Difficulty in assessing labor productivity and service delivery efficiency.
Contact with the consumer and participation of the client in the process of providing the service. By its nature, service involves a greater degree of contact with the consumer than material production. This is the most important difference between the production of services and the production of tangible goods.
The production of material products allows for a separation between production and consumption, and the customer is not directly involved in the production process. Therefore, production can be located far from the client, which increases the choice of working methods, scheduling and control over production.
A service, by definition, is a process in which a customer is involved. Service is carried out in direct contact with the customer and is therefore more limited in choice options work. Moreover, often consumers are an integral part of the service system. In this regard, the service is designed taking into account the impact of the client on the process of its provision. The staff is in contact with the client, which requires him to have not only professional and technological skills, but also the art of communication.
Exclusion of the client from the service process allows you to unify the process and increase the efficiency of its production. Therefore, in modern system services, there is a trend towards the introduction of remote service using technical means of communication. For example, taking orders via the Internet, remote monitoring of the patient's condition, using ATMs, accepting payments, etc.
Regulation of the degree of customer participation in the business process allows companies to receive competitive advantage. Therefore, instead of the traditional retail stores came self-service stores in which the client acts as an employee trading floor, independently selecting and transporting the goods.
Combining the stages of customer satisfaction and service provision. Any business can be represented as three stages: production - sale - consumption. In the production of material products, they are separated from each other, and the client is not a participant in the production process. When providing services, these stages may coincide in space and time. For example, in a restaurant, production, sale and consumption are carried out simultaneously in the presence of the client; and in the studio and the store, the stages of sale and consumption can be combined.
In the manufacturing sector, work with the product is concentrated in the subdivisions of the processing subsystem operating system without the presence of the client. In the service sector, activities for their provision are present in all departments, including the provision and management subsystems. In the process of consuming most services, in contrast to the consumption of material products, customers are directly at the place of their provision: in the office, restaurant hall, in a surgical operating room, in a train compartment, etc.
Services cannot be stored. In the production of tangible products during a recession, it is possible to accumulate stocks of finished goods for sale during periods of increased demand, and thus maintain a relatively stable level of capacity utilization and staff employment.
Services, being a customer satisfaction process, cannot be stockpiled or pre-stocked. In this area, with rare exceptions, it is necessary to meet demand at the moment of its occurrence, which can limit the flexibility of the service delivery process and emphasize capacity planning.
Change in demand for services. Any demand is volatile, but the demand for services is characterized by large, complex and rapid fluctuations. The influence of fluctuations in the demand for services, and therefore on the needs for production capacity in service systems, is much stronger than in material production.
The quality of service depends largely on fluctuations in demand. In this regard, when using any service model of work, attention must be paid to its ability to respond to short-term changes in demand.
The participation of the client in the process of providing the service leads to deviations in the time of service for each client. Each of the clients has different needs, a different level of personal experience and may require a different number and quality of contacts. This causes additional fluctuations in capacity utilization and staff employment.
The duration of the service cycle depends on the behavior of the client. Moreover, organizational, technical, climatic, demographic, economic, political and other factors can influence the behavior of the client in the service process, and his behavior affects both short-term and long-term changes in demand. However, these fluctuations are in principle predictable.
Heterogeneity of the final result. The manufacturing process gravitates toward uniformity and efficiency due to the well-defined end product. The activity of the service sector in comparison with it is more uncertain, due to the variability of the final product, due to the dependence on the perception and participation of consumers.
Heterogeneity of requirements for the nature and content of the labor process. The production of services involves a greater variety of activities than is typical. industrial production. Each client is a specific task that must first be diagnosed and then the appropriate action selected. The process of industrial production mainly allows you to control the change in actions. Accordingly, the production requirements for material production will be more uniform than in the service sector.
Due to the spontaneous consumption of services by customers and the variability of actions, the service sector requires a more varied content of labor, while industrial production, with rare exceptions, can be more homogeneous, intensive and mechanized.
The intangibility of the service for the client. The material results of any activity can be tangible (touched), and the process of providing a service is intangible for the client.
Therefore, when designing a service, attention should be paid to the material, tangible environment in which the service takes place, in particular: the location of the service object, its design, appearance and staff speech, smells, etc. These moments should provide the client with the opportunity to correctly understand what kind of service and under what conditions it is provided.
The following problems are caused by the intangibility of a service:
It is difficult to develop a specification (standard) for a service, since clients may understand the “correctness” of its provision in different ways.
It is difficult to achieve a complete understanding of customer needs, and understanding is essential to success.
It is difficult to assess the quality and efficiency of the service.
Difficulty in quality assurance. In the service sector, it is much more difficult to guarantee quality, since production and consumption occur simultaneously. High heterogeneity of actions during maintenance creates an additional risk of reducing product quality. Since the processes of production and consumption coincide in the provision of a service, the quality of the service cannot be checked in advance and it cannot be guaranteed that an error made in the process of the service will be corrected before it is discovered by the client. Therefore, quality at the time of product creation is usually more important for service than for production, where errors can be corrected before the customer receives the product.
Due to the intangibility of the service and the involvement of the client in the process of its provision, it is difficult for the management of the organization to assess its quality. The assessment is influenced by the needs of the client himself and his individual ability to perceive the service. On the other hand, the perception of the quality of the service by the client depends not only on the quality of the developed service process, but also on the quality of work and communication skills of the staff.
The most common methods for assessing the quality of services are questionnaires and interviews with clients. The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about what factors are most important for service consumers. To achieve the required quality of service, it is necessary to carefully design the service, train staff and develop relationships with customers.
Difficulty in assessing labor productivity and service efficiency. Measuring labor productivity in manufacturing is less complex and more accurate than in services. This is due to the fact that products are homogeneous in production, and less homogeneous in the service sector due to fluctuations in consumer demand and requirements that change the content of labor.
Customer involvement in the service delivery process, overlapping production and consumption stages, fluctuations in demand and the inability to use inventory in the performance of the service lead to deviations from planned costs and problems in assessing the effectiveness of services. It is difficult to make an objective assessment of the results of the service and according to the data obtained from customer surveys.
To increase the efficiency of activities in the provision of services, as a rule, an increase in interaction with the consumer is required. However, with the strengthening of interaction with the client, the degree of individualization of the service and its labor intensity increase. Therefore, it is very problematic to provide and unambiguously evaluate the effectiveness of the service.
b) Service Production Organization Models
When organizing a production (operating) system in the service sector, the following models are used:
1. Model of "first-class service"
The term "first-class" service is not associated with the client's assessment of the quality of the service, but with the market segment expensive services, which most often uses this model. In this case, an excess resource of production capacity is created so that each client can receive service immediately at the time of contact. The redundancy of the resource causes periodic downtime of equipment, the occurrence of excess stocks of materials, and the unemployment of personnel.
2. Model of "cheap" service
In this model, production capacity is deliberately limited. Customers are forced to stand in line waiting for service. Insufficient capacity makes it possible to reduce costs and manipulate the price of the service.
In this case, it is possible to “store” not the service, but the customers in the queue. The idea of influencing demand is used in order to balance it with the available production capacities. This impact can be carried out by manipulating a long queue or applying a system of discounts or markups during periods of decline or growth in demand, as well as creating an employment infrastructure for the client while waiting in line.
3. Model of "inefficient" service
Its essence lies in the fact that both downtime of excess production capacity and idle time of customers in the queue are periodically observed, which, as a rule, is associated with seasonal fluctuations in demand for services. This is the reason for the inefficiency of this model. However, the "inefficient" service model is the most common and focuses on the average load per year.
To achieve maximum process efficiency in the provision of services, it is recommended to provide 70% capacity utilization. Such capacity, according to Chase R., is sufficient to ensure that the service channels are constantly loaded and have enough time for individual customer service, allows you to have a certain power reserve and manage the process of providing services.
Of course, this capacity utilization rate depends on the service sector. Where the degree of uncertainty and significance of service provision is high, a load of less than 70% is recommended. Provision of services with good predictability of scope or without direct contact with customers allows for planning activities and will approach 100% capacity utilization. These recommendations for the organization of work in the service sector meet the requirements for the organization of material unit production.
Modern man is a consumer of not only goods, but also services. The development of the non-productive sphere is the most important indicator in the economy of any state.
What is the non-manufacturing sector?
This concept refers to all economic sectors that satisfy the non-material needs of people in society. Such needs include the organization, redistribution and use of material values, spiritual benefits, the development of various aspects of the personality, as well as health care. The non-production sector is responsible social needs society and every individual in it.
This includes the concept of "spiritual production". This term was introduced by Karl Marx, who understood it as the production of skills, habits, ideas, artistic images and values. The non-manufacturing sector also includes industries that are engaged in the production of services.
The difference between a service and a product
A person is an object of labor for employees of an enterprise that provides services. A product is a certain object or thing endowed with certain properties. It was obtained as a result of work done in the past. The service, on the other hand, has only useful properties that are not attached to a material carrier, and is the result of labor in the present. The service sells the employee of the company who provides it, it cannot change its owner, unlike the product. Services have no cost. However, they have a price, which is determined by the value of the worker's ability to work and the
The sphere of non-production is based on material base. Without material production, it could not exist. After all, services are ultimately exchanged for goods. The workers involved in material production also provide for the maintenance of those who work in the service sector.
Branches of the non-manufacturing sphere
Sociologists identify 15 industries:
- sales (commerce);
- public catering;
- household services: home care, repair and custom-made production of various groups of goods, personal hygiene;
- school and preschool education;
- the medicine;
- social service;
- recreational services;
- maintenance of cultural institutions;
- Information Support;
- finance and insurance;
- legal support of citizens;
- services of legal and notary offices;
- connection;
- transport support.
Often, enterprises are engaged in the provision of several different industries at once.
The non-production sphere, together with all its institutions and enterprises providing material services, together constitutes a social infrastructure.
There are also industries related to the service sector that serve large social strata:
- management of state organizations;
- secondary, primary, higher education;
- the science;
- state security bodies;
- public associations.
Relationship with productive labor
The non-productive sphere does not create new value. However, this does not mean that such work is useless for society. Material production underlies the non-productive industries, which are a superstructure to the material ones and cannot exist without them.
It is not created by the non-productive sphere, since it focuses on the comprehensive spiritual development of a person, his state of health, etc. Nevertheless, it can affect productivity, improve the skills of personnel, that is, it indirectly affects the national income of the state.
Situation in modern Russia
The non-productive sphere of the economy is a reflection of the needs of society and changes in their structure depending on the standard of living of citizens. AT modern Russia more than 30% of the population works in this area.
The non-production sphere in our country is characterized by territorial differentiation in terms of its level of development. Such differences are inherent when comparing both individual regions and federal districts. Territorial differentiation - one of the reasons It arose in the 60s of the last century.
The centers of the non-productive sphere have a hierarchy:
- Moscow.
- Central cities of subjects of the federation.
- regional centers.
- Centers of rural settlements.
- rural settlements.
Organizations engaged in recreational and sanatorium services have their own specifics of territorial distribution. They depend on the location of the natural and socio-economic base. Therefore, two largest centers were formed in Russia - the North Caucasus and the Black Sea.
The non-productive sphere is represented in the economy by industries that are engaged in meeting the cultural and spiritual needs of a person. It is closely connected with material production and strongly depends on it. In our country, the branches of non-material production are characterized by territorial differentiation.
An important theoretical and practical problem in the analysis of service activities is the question of structuring the service sector, as well as the classification of services and service activities. Below we will touch upon some aspects of their classification division.
The development of classification criteria is aimed at identifying and selecting the most important typological features of services and service activities that can help in their division into constituent units (directions, varieties, groups). It is important that these qualities are not random or insignificant, but reflect the essential properties of the service, making it possible to form the most important typological units on the basis of a multitude of real services. For example, such a criterion as “the degree of mass character” makes it possible to subdivide all services into two types: mass and non-mass. In turn, among non-mass services, on the basis of various criteria, a number of additional group-forming units can be distinguished (elite, exclusive services, etc.).
The development of classification criteria is of no small importance, because in different countries there are many sometimes difficultly comparable approaches to the creation of classification schemes, which makes it extremely difficult to analyze service activities even in one country. Classification criteria in scientific analysis can be especially numerous. Indeed, researchers often develop classification criteria for solving purely theoretical problems, not always taking into account practical requirements that facilitate the grouping of service activities.
The practice of intra-industry relations in the service sector, as well as state and interstate relations, require the use of generally accepted classification approaches and schemes that could be relatively easy to operate in the process of economic relations.
It is especially important to agree on the division of services according to content and functional criteria, i.e. according to the most significant features of service activities related to the nature of work, the scope of services, their purpose, etc. This is not an easy task, as new types of services are constantly multiplying in the modern world; services are becoming more and more complex in nature and functionality.
Two aspects should be seen in the fact that different national classification models are used in different countries of the world. On the one hand, these models make it possible to display various, sometimes hidden, non-obvious characteristics of service activities, thereby demonstrating a wide range of adaptive capabilities of a modern service in relation to a changing world. On the other hand, disparate models make it difficult comparative analysis service industries on an international scale.
The task of developing common criteria and classification schemes for services remains an unresolved problem in the world. Most often, classification work is carried out in certain countries on the basis of established traditions of collecting state statistics or solving problems that arise in a particular situation before society. As an example, consider the service classification model adopted at North American Continent, which, of course, reflects the historical practice of developing service activities in the United States and Canada. This model is based on content-functional criteria and includes the following major areas of service activity, which can be considered its most important areas*:
♦ transport (railway, aviation, freight, road transport, etc.);
♦ communications (telephone, telegraph, radio, etc.);
♦ public utility services (electricity, water and gas supply, etc.);
♦ mass activity (wholesale and retail trade);
♦ financing, insurance, including work with real estate;
♦ direct service (hotels, services of a personal nature, consultations on the organization of mass entrepreneurship, car repair, repair of various items, movie rental, entertainment and recreation, etc.);
♦ other types of service.
In world practice, ways are being sought to overcome the difficulties associated with discrepancies and incompatibility of classification schemes of analysis adopted in different regions and countries of the world. Thus, there is an appeal to the analysis of services that in developed countries taken into account by statistical authorities, which allows the use of comparable statistical data on these services for comparative study. These are the services:
♦ business services;
♦ communication services;
♦ construction and engineering services;
♦ distribution services;
♦ general educational services;
♦ financial services, including insurance;
♦ health services and social services;
♦ tourism and travel; services in the field of leisure organization;
♦ other services.
Let us point out the use in the interstate practice of a number of developed countries of a classification based on two interconnected criteria: the type of services and the scope of their application.
table 2Types of services in different fields of application