Economic activity person.
The emergence of civilization is a consequence of the emergence of the sphere of suprabiological needs and material technologies. In the list of atrocities against environment“desertification” can be put in second place after the death of forests. On the territory of the Russian Federation, the Black Lands in Kalmykia and the Astrakhan region and some other areas are subject to desertification. All of them belong to the zones of ecological disaster.
2. Development of technology and achievement of industrial civilizations created a negative trend
1. The consumption of resources in the Russian Federation has led to the depletion of natural resources, to the irreversible impoverishment of the lithosphere and biosphere.
2. Waste, by-products of production and everyday life pollute the biosphere, cause deformations ecological systems disrupt the global cycle of substances and pose a threat to human health.
Pollution of natural waters.
Withdrawal of water for irrigation from rivers in Central Asia led to the shallowing of the Aral Sea, which practically ceased to exist. From the bottom of the dried sea, salt is carried by the wind for hundreds of kilometers, causing soil salinization. No less formidable phenomenon is the pollution of fresh water bodies. Salts of heavy metals (mercury, lead, zinc, copper, etc.) accumulate in silt at the bottom of water bodies and in the tissues of organisms that make up food chains. In the human body, they cause severe poisoning.
Lake Baikal is unique in terms of fresh water reserves. But the ever-increasing amount of household waste is causing concern. Effluent carries harmful substances for hydrobionts, such as mercury, zinc, tungsten, and molybdenum.
Pollution of water bodies occurs not only with waste industrial production, but also by the ingress of organic matter, mineral fertilizers, and pesticides from fields into water bodies.
Scientific discoveries and the development of physical and chemical technologies in the 20th century led to the emergence of artificial sources of radiation that pose a potential danger to humanity and the entire biosphere.
Marine waters are also polluted. With rivers and runoff from coastal industrial and agricultural enterprises, millions of tons of chemical waste and more are annually carried into the sea. Because of the accidents of tankers and oil-producing installations, oil enters the ocean, causing the death of many aquatic animals, sea birds. Fear is caused by the burial of nuclear waste at the bottom of the seas, sunken ships with nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons on board. There are many of them in the Barents, Kara, Japan seas.
4. With energy thermal power plants are associated with complex environmental problems.
1) the construction of dams on lowland rivers causes the flooding of large areas for reservoirs, hence the loss of arable land, meadows and pastures.
2) the dam, blocking the river, creates insurmountable obstacles for the migration of anadromous and semi-anadromous fish, which rise to spawn in the upper reaches of the rivers.
3) water stagnates in storage facilities, its flow slows down.
4) local rise in water affects groundwater, leads to flooding, swamping, as well as bank erosion and landslides.
The most dangerous environmental pollutants are thermal power plants, which burn huge amounts of fuel. Harmful and hazardous waste enters the natural environment.
5. Nuclear power plants melt the danger in the event of serious reactor accidents. For example, an accident Chernobyl nuclear power plant became a global catastrophe.
Energy poses the most complex environmental problems.
6. Decrease in forest area causes a violation of the cycles of oxygen and carbon in the biosphere. These are massive extensive logging, forest fires and others.
Deforestation entails the death of their richest fauna and flora
7. Pollution of groundwater with chemicals can come through polluted surface water that feeds groundwater.
8. Outdoor air pollution occurs in the process of production and other human activities, from emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere (emission sources: cars, smelters, etc.
The environmental problem is a real threat to humanity.
Conclusion
2. Reasons ecological crisis in Russia and the main directions of exit from it.
Environmental crises and ways out of them
Reimers in 1990 defined the global ecological crisis as a direction, a state in the relationship between human society and nature, characterized by a discrepancy between the production forces and production relations of human society, and the resource and biological capabilities of the biosphere.
The crisis of the appropriating economy is considered the first ecological crisis. The way out of the crisis was found in the transition to collective hunting and the division of labor between the participants.
The second crisis is connected with overfishing of large animals. The way out was found in the transition from the appropriating economy to the producing one. The development of agriculture determined the progress of mankind for millennia.
The third crisis is related to complete information forests and excessive pressure of primitive agriculture.
The fourth crisis is associated with the scientific and technological revolution.
Ways out of the global environmental crisis
An analysis of the environmental and socio-economic situation in the Russian Federation allows us to identify 5 main directions for the Russian Federation to emerge from the global environmental crisis.
Technology ecology
Development and improvement of the economics of the mechanism of environmental protection
Administrative and legal direction
Ecological and educational
international legal
All components of the biosphere must be protected not separately, but as a whole as a single natural system. According to the federal law on "environmental protection" (2002), the main principles of environmental protection are:
Respect for human rights to a favorable environment.
Rational and non-wasteful nature management
Conservation of biological diversity
Payment for nature use and compensation for environmental damage
Mandatory state ecological expertise
Priority of conservation of natural ecosystems of natural landscapes and complexes
Observance of the rights of everyone to reliable information about the state of the environment
The most important environmental principle is a scientifically based combination of economic, environmental and social interests (1992)
international Conference United Nations in Rio de Janeiro.
3. Nature as an object of use and protection. Basic concepts of environmental law.
The basic concepts of environmental law are presented in Article 1 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection" dated January 10, 2002. The article proposes an extensive list of concepts used in environmental law. The legal meaning of the definitions lies in the fact that these concepts should be interpreted in the implementation of the law strictly in the meaning given to them in this article. In addition, by general rule, it is this meaning that should be included in the corresponding terms even in the case when they occur in other laws or by-laws, unless otherwise defined in the normative act itself.
The conceptual apparatus of the law is a complex system in which all terms are closely interconnected, each of them is interpreted with the obligatory consideration of all the others. The concept of "natural object" can be considered the initial link in this terminological chain.
A natural object is a natural ecological system, a natural landscape, and the components of the natural environment that make them up.
A natural-anthropogenic object is those objects that are created artificially, but have acquired all the properties of a natural object (for example, reservoirs, a pond).
Anthropogenic objects are objects that are created by man.
The natural environment is everything (components of the natural environment, natural object, natural-anthropogenic object), except for anthropogenic objects.
Objects legal regulation environmental law should have the following features:
natural origin
Ecological dependence and state in the chain of eco-connections
Performance of life-supporting functions that determine their social and environmental value for society and humans
Nature includes three types of ecological systems:
natural
Modified (modified systems in the course of economic activity)
Transformed (systems transformed by human activity - for example, land reclamation)
On this basis, the law defines the environment and the natural environment. The environment is a combination of components of the natural environment, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects, as well as anthropogenic objects
Components of the natural environment (these are its main, fortified components):
Ground and surface water
Earth (soil)
Animal and plant world
atmospheric air
Ozone layer
near-Earth space
In the terminological dictionary of the law gives the concept of the environment. The title term "environmental protection" is defined as activities carried out in the following areas: a) conservation and restoration of the natural environment, b) rational use and reproduction natural resources, c) prevention of the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment; d) elimination of the consequences of such impact.
The next terminological block is related to the limitations of the negative impact on the environment. This is such an impact of economic and other activities, the consequences of which lead to negative changes in the quality of the environment. Environmental pollution
The two main types of regulations in the field of environmental protection or nature protection standards are environmental quality standards and standards of permissible environmental impact.
Traditionally, according to Russian legislation, three groups of objects of legal protection are distinguished:
a) natural ecological systems, the ozone layer of the atmosphere,
b) land, its subsoil, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, forests and other vegetation, animal world, microorganisms, genetic fund, natural landscapes;
c) specially protected natural areas (state nature reserves, nature reserves, national parks, natural monuments), rare or endangered animals and plants and their habitats.
That is, the objects of protection are the components (elements) of the environment, the biosphere, either taken separately or forming specific structures, for example, ecosystems, the World Ocean, etc.
The law proposes a more detailed, detailed list of environmental standards. These are the standards for the permissible anthropogenic load on the environment, the standards for permissible emissions and discharges chemical substances, including radioactive, other substances and microorganisms and others.
Environmental quality standards, in turn, include standards for maximum permissible concentrations, standards for permissible physical impacts, reflecting the levels of permissible impact of certain physical factors on the environment.
The last thematic cycle of terms defined in the law is related to the problems of state control and ensuring environmental safety. This is a special activity to identify, analyze and take into account the consequences of the impact on the environment of the planned economic and other activities; based on the results of such an assessment, a decision is made on the possibility or impossibility of carrying out the relevant activity.
Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring), which includes a system of observations of the state of the environment, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
Another related activity is control in the field of environmental protection, or environmental control.
Requirements in the field of environmental protection (environmental requirements) are legally mandatory conditions required by law and other regulations to economic and other activities for the purpose of environmental protection.
Environmental audit - a special type of assessment of compliance with environmental requirements
The Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" contains a definition of four various kinds assessment of the state of the environment: EIA, environmental monitoring, environmental control and environmental audit
4. Concept, subject and methods of environmental law.
Environmental law is a branch Russian law, which is a system of legal norms that regulate social relations in the field of interaction between society and nature. This definition is based on the preamble federal law“On Environmental Protection”, which notes: “This Federal Law regulates relations in the field of interaction between society and nature arising from the implementation of economic and other activities related to the impact on the natural environment as the most important component of the environment, which is the basis of life on Earth, within the territory Russian Federation, as well as on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation”.
The subject of environmental law is public relations in the field of protection, improvement and improvement of the natural environment, prevention and elimination of harmful consequences of the impact of economic and other activities on it. The difference between the subject of environmental law and the subjects of related industries - land, mining, water, forestry, one of the main tasks of which is also the protection and rational use of the natural environment - is that the former regulates relations for the rational use and protection of the environment. the natural environment as a whole, while other branches regulate relations relating to individual natural objects - land, bowels, waters, forests, etc.
The source of the fundamental principles of environmental law is the Constitution of the Russian Federation. This set of constitutional norms singles out as a special constitutional function of environmental protection, establishes general legal principles of the priority of nature conservation, consolidates the responsibility of the current generation to the future, and also provides for the country's environmental sovereignty, establishing the constitutional legal order. The basic principles of environmental law are listed in Art. 3 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection".
Environmental law, like many other branches of Russian law, does not have any special, only inherent method of legal regulation. Therefore, it is more correct to speak not about the method of environmental law, but about the methods of legal regulation of environmental relations.
The method of legal regulation of social relations is a special way of influencing them by the norms of a particular branch of law (in this case- norms of environmental law).
In general, in the theory of law, there are two main methods of legal regulation of social relations: imperative and dispositive. Ways to influence social relations are:
for the imperative method, prohibition and prescription;
for the dispositive method, on the contrary, methods of coordination, recommendations.
These methods are important for the regulation of environmental relations. For example, for the period of domination of the command-administrative system, it was the imperative method of regulating environmental relations that was characteristic. There was a system of prohibitions and prescriptions. Accordingly, when moving to market relations the use of the dispositive method expanded: greater freedom was provided in production and economic activities.
The economic mechanism is widely used - in the form of payment for the use of natural resources, economic incentives for the rational use and protection of the natural environment, etc.
But still, the imperative method is still of primary importance due to social significance, the need for strict observance of the procedure for the use and protection of the natural environment.
5.Norms of environmental law.
They are divided into three groups: sectoral (protection and use of individual natural objects - land, subsoil, water, forests, etc.), complex (protection and use natural complexes, the natural environment as a whole), ecologized (norms of other branches of law - administrative, criminal, economic, etc. reflecting the requirements of environmental protection).
Ecological legal regulations subdivided into norms - principles, norms - priorities, norms - rules.
Norms-principles establish the fundamental principles of environmental protection (Article 3 of the Law on Environmental Protection).
Norms - priorities establish legal advantages in the protection and use of some objects over others in the interests of ensuring the quality of the natural environment.
There are environmental and legal norms - the priorities of three levels: sectoral, intersectoral and general environmental level.
Norms - rules - contain environmental requirements in relation to a specific area of environmental relations.
Environmental legal relations should be considered social relations that arise in the sphere of interaction between society and nature and are regulated by the norms of environmental law.
The grounds for the emergence of environmental legal relations are legal facts. In ecology - events and actions.
An event arises and generates an ecological legal relations beyond the will of man. These are natural disasters, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, etc. Actions are manifested through the actions of a person. Which are divided into positive and negative.
Positive human behavior - the use of natural resources - the protection of the natural environment, i.e. on economic actions that affect the natural environment, environmental - neutralizing the harmful effects of activities.
A negative environmental legal relationship occurs when environmental regulations are violated, harm is caused to the natural environment and human health.
6. Ecological legal relations.
Environmental legal relations are relations in the field of protection, improvement and improvement of the natural environment, prevention and elimination of the harmful consequences of the impact of economic and other activities on it, regulated by the norms of environmental and related branches of law.
Environmental legal relations can be classified on various grounds: by subjects, that is, participants in environmental legal relations, their objects, the degree of legal protection, etc. Thus, in accordance with the Law “On Environmental Protection”, legal relations in the field should be distinguished:
Natural ecological systems and the ozone layer of the atmosphere;
Land, water, forest relations, relations regarding the use and protection of atmospheric air, wildlife, microorganisms, the genetic fund, natural landscapes;
Specially protected natural objects (reserves, sanctuaries, national natural parks, etc.).
The subjects of environmental legal relations, that is, their participants, are citizens, legal entities, state bodies.
1) users of natural resources - bearers of rights and obligations for the rational use of natural resources and protection of the natural environment;
2) bodies of representative and executive power, specially authorized bodies of the state, having the right to regulate the use of natural resources and to control the protection of the natural environment;
3) public associations of ecological profile;
4) bodies of judicial and prosecutorial supervision, exercising supervision over the legality of environmental legal relations.
The basis for the emergence, change and termination of environmental, as well as other, legal relations are legal facts, that is, circumstances that, under the current legislation, entail such legal implications. Environmental legal relations arise from the grounds, statutory and other legal acts, as well as from the actions of citizens and legal entities, which, although not provided for by law and other legal acts, but by virtue of the general principles and meaning of the legislation, give rise to rights and obligations. Among such grounds are contracts and other transactions, acts of state bodies and local governments, court decisions, acquisition of property on grounds permitted by law, unjust enrichment, and others.
7. The system of environmental law.
The system of environmental law is a set of institutions of environmental law, arranged in a certain sequence.
The system of the branch of law is understood as the structure of its main elements, parts - sub-sectors, institutions, norms. The system of environmental law consists of the General, Special and Special parts.
The general part consists of the following legal institutions: environmental rights of citizens and public organizations, ownership of natural objects (resources), the right to use natural resources, environmental management, environmental regulation, environmental expertise, licensing and control, economic mechanism for nature management and environmental protection, legal liability for environmental offenses.
The Special Part includes legal norms regulating: the legal regime for the protection and use of certain natural resources (land, subsoil, water, forests, wildlife, atmospheric air); legal status ecological disaster zones; legal protection of the environment of urban and rural settlements; legal status of specially protected natural areas.
The special part of environmental law includes the international legal mechanism for cooperation between states in the field of environmental protection.
8. Sources of environmental law.
The sources of environmental law are understood as normative legal acts containing norms regulating relations in the field of interaction between society and nature.
Sources of environmental law can be classified on the following grounds:
by legal force - on laws and by-laws.
Laws - regulatory legal acts adopted by representative bodies state power.
By-laws - all other regulatory legal acts adopted by the President of the Russian Federation, the Government of the Russian Federation and the executive authorities of the subjects of the Federation, ministries and departments, local governments.
on the subject of regulation - into general and special.
General - regulate both environmental and other social relations (for example, the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
Special - these are acts entirely devoted to the protection of the environment or its elements (for example, the Law "On the Protection of the Environment", the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law "On the Animal World", etc.).
by the nature of legal regulation - into material and procedural.
Material environmental and legal norms establish the rights and obligations, as well as the responsibility of the participants in the relevant relations (Federal Laws "On Ecological Expertise", "On Specially Protected Natural Territories", etc.).
Sources of environmental law of a procedural nature regulate procedural relations in the field of nature management, environmental protection and environmental safety. They relate, for example, to the provision of land for use, the procedure for developing standards for maximum permissible environmental impacts, the conduct of state environmental expertise, environmental licensing, the protection of environmental rights and interests, etc. (Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR; Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation; Regulations on the procedure for conducting state environmental expertise, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 11, 1996, etc.).
by their nature - into codifying and non-codifying. Codifying acts include the Law "On the Environment", the Forest Code of the Russian Federation, the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law "On Subsoil", etc.
9. Basic principles of environmental law.
The principles of law are the guidelines in accordance with which the entire branch of law is built, the main principles expressing its essence and social purpose. The principles of environmental law reflect the objective patterns and needs of society, each person in an environmentally friendly natural environment. The basic principles of environmental law are enshrined in Art. 3 of the Law “On Environmental Protection”3. These include: The basic principles of environmental law are enshrined in Art. 3 of the Law "On Environmental Protection" Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" of 10.01.2002 N 7-FZ. These include:
the principle of the priority of protecting human life and health, ensuring favorable environmental conditions for life, work and recreation of the population;
the principle of a scientifically based combination of environmental and economic interests of society, providing real guarantees of human rights to a healthy and favorable natural environment for life;
the principle of rational use of natural resources, taking into account the laws of nature, the potential of the natural environment, the need for the reproduction of natural resources and the prevention of irreversible consequences for the natural environment and human health;
the principle of legality and inevitability of responsibility for committing environmental offenses;
the principle of publicity in the work of bodies government controlled, close communication with the public in solving environmental problems;
the principle of international cooperation in environmental protection.
The system of principles of environmental law is supplemented by: responsibility for violation of legislation in the field of environmental protection; organization and development of the system of environmental education, education and formation of environmental culture; participation of citizens, public and other non-profit associations in solving problems of environmental protection; responsibility of state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation, local governments for ensuring a favorable environment and environmental safety in the respective territories, etc.
10. Environmental rights and obligations of citizens.
In Art. 42 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation lists the main groups of environmental rights of citizens and others individuals, including their right to:
Favorable environment;
Reliable information about the state of the environment;
Compensation for damage caused to health or property by an environmental offense.
1. The right to a healthy environment is inherently a natural human right that belongs to him from birth. It is connected with the financial, material, organizational and other possibilities of public authorities to ensure a favorable state of the environment for humans.
2. The right to reliable information about the state of the environment. A person can exercise this right by actively expressing his will, making a request to an authorized public authority.
It can be implemented in the "passive" mode. Responsibilities of state bodies for environmental protection annually prepares a report on the state of the environment in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and, on the basis of it, a federal report, which is then made public. Of great importance is the timeliness of bringing by authorized bodies to the public information that creates a real threat to the life and health of individuals in each specific case.
3. The right to compensation for damage caused to health or property by an environmental offense. In Art. 11 of the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" in a slightly different interpretation repeats the environmental rights enshrined in the constitution of the Russian Federation, and also lists possible ways for citizens to exercise their environmental rights.
The concretization of the environmental rights of citizens and the ways of their implementation is reflected in legislative and by-laws. Thus Chapter V of the Federal Law "On Ecological Expertise" regulates the procedure for initiating and conducting a public environmental review.
Article 10 of the Federal Law "On the Wildlife" allows citizens to exercise public control and take measures to protect the wildlife and its habitat.
The environmental right of a citizen includes holding rallies and other mass events of an environmental nature. Such environmental rights can be categorized as general rights.
Certain rights of citizens and other persons belong to the category of special rights. Such rights are enshrined in natural resource legislation and their full implementation also depends on the will of the relevant subject.
Participants in public relations that relate to the sphere of ensuring environmental safety are endowed with special environmental rights.
Citizens have the right:
To protect life, health, their personal property in the event of emergencies;
For compensation for damage caused to their health and property as a result of emergency situations and more.
Standardization
- this is an activity to establish rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary reuse, aimed at achieving order in the areas of production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services.
Environmental certification
is a specialized activity for conformity assessment finished products or other certified object to the requirements for it technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of contracts, including in the field of environmental safety and environmental protection. It is a means of confirming environmentally significant indicators of product quality declared by the manufacturer, assists consumers in right choice products, performs the function of monitoring the safety of products for the environment, health and property, protecting the consumer from an unscrupulous manufacturer of products.
Environmental certification is mandatory and voluntary.
Mandatory certification standing timber and minor forest resources are subject; defense industry products; goods and technologies, waste imported into the territory of the Russian Federation; technical devices used at hazardous production facilities; certain types food products, materials, products, services, quality systems according to the list approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.
28. The concept and types of environmental control.
Environmental control is a certain type of activity of state and public bodies to monitor the state of the natural environment, its changes under the influence of economic and other activities, verify the implementation of plans and measures for nature protection, rational use of natural resources, improve nature, comply with the requirements of environmental legislation and environmental quality standards.
Environmental control refers to the activities of authorized entities to verify compliance with and fulfillment of the requirements of environmental legislation.
The Law on Environmental Protection distinguishes 3 types of environmental control:
1. State
2. Production
3. Public
The state environmental control in the field of environmental protection includes control over the protection and use of individual natural resources (land, forest, water, geological), wildlife, control over the protection of atmospheric air.
General environmental control
Relates to the competence of the highest echelons state system management, which, along with other functions, carry out the functions of state administration and control in the field of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources. At the federal level, this is the control department in the administration of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, at the regional level - the relevant bodies of representative and executive power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Specialized environmental control
For all types of natural resources in general, the organization and implementation of state control is entrusted by the Government of the Russian Federation to the State Committee for Ecology of Russia.
The specificity of sectoral state bodies lies in the fact that one type of natural resources is within their competence. Roskomzem monitors security and rational use lands, Roskomvod - water resources, Rosleskhoz - forests, etc.
Departmental and industrial environmental control
The essence of departmental environmental control lies mainly in ensuring that the central executive authorities of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation fulfill the legal requirements for the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection by subordinate objects. Government institutions, organizations and enterprises subordinate to higher authorities.
In the distant past (over 10 thousand years ago), people practically did not engage in production, but only took everything they needed from nature. Their activities were hunting, fishing and gathering. Over time, mankind has greatly changed and improved activities.
From this article you will learn what economic activity is and what types of economic activity there are.
So, the economy is called the production by people of everything that is necessary to meet the needs and improve living conditions. In other words, economic activity is a set of industries that are interconnected.
These industries include:
- Agriculture;
- industry;
- services sector;
- transport;
- trade;
- science and education;
- healthcare;
- construction.
It is engaged in providing the population with food and supplies of raw materials for some industries. The development of agricultural production depends mainly on natural conditions. The degree of development of agriculture, in turn, has a great influence on the economy and political situation of the state, as well as on its food independence.
The most important areas of this industry are animal husbandry and crop production. Animal husbandry is engaged in the maintenance and breeding of farm animals for food (eggs, cheese, milk), raw materials (wool) and organic fertilizers. It includes cattle breeding, poultry farming, sheep breeding, pig breeding, etc.
The task of crop production is to grow various agricultural crops, which are then used as food, animal feed and raw materials. The branches of crop production include vegetable growing, potato growing, horticulture, grain farming, etc.
Enterprises that produce tools and are engaged in the extraction of materials, raw materials, fuel, as well as the processing of industrial or agricultural products. Industry is divided into mining and manufacturing. The mining sector specializes in the extraction of raw materials, oil, coal, ores, peat, while the manufacturing sector specializes in the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, machinery, equipment, building materials. The industry includes the following branches:
- fuel industry;
- light industry;
- food industry;
- timber industry;
- non-ferrous metallurgy;
- ferrous metallurgy;
- engineering and other industries.
Services sector
This industry is designed to provide the population with tangible and intangible (spiritual) services. Material services include household service, communication, transport. To intangible - health care, trade, public services. There are also market and non-market services. Market services mean those services that are sold on the market at significant, from the point of view of the economy, prices. Transport, paid education and healthcare are examples of typical market services. Non-market services include science, defense, and free health and education services, that is, everything that has no economic value.
A means that satisfies the needs of the population in the transportation of goods and passengers. This industry expands the scale of production and consumption, as it literally links these two processes. However, transport is highly dependent on external conditions, because transportation is often carried out over long distances. However, the transport industry is considered quite profitable under market conditions, not to mention the monopolization of transport.
The activity of people, which is associated with acts of sale and a set of operations designed to carry out the process of exchange. Trade is of two types: wholesale and retail. At wholesale trade the purchase of goods occurs in large quantities, as it is acquired for the purpose of further use. Retail, on the contrary, carries out acts of sale and purchase directly to end consumers.
Education includes pre-school and general secondary education, as well as personnel training. Education includes such branches as transport, natural sciences, psychology, radio engineering, mathematics, construction and other types of education. The purpose of science is to obtain scientific knowledge as the results of ongoing research. Science is very difficult to overestimate: its contribution to the development of the state economy, increasing the efficiency material production and protection information resources the state is very large.
An industry that organizes and ensures the protection of public health. To preserve, maintain physical and mental health, as well as to provide assistance in case of deterioration of health, special social institutions are created.
This industry ensures the commissioning of new, as well as the reconstruction and repair of both industrial and non-industrial facilities. The main role of this industry is to create conditions for the dynamic pace of development of the state economy. In addition, this industry is directly involved in the creation of fixed assets (along with the building materials industry, metallurgy and some other sectors of the economy), which are intended for all sectors of the national economy.
More than 10 thousand years ago, people produced almost nothing, but only scooped everything they needed from the natural environment. Their main activities were gathering, hunting and fishing. As humanity has matured, people's occupations have changed greatly.
What is a modern economy?
Geography of the main types of economic activity
With the advent of new types of economic activity of people, their economy also changed. Agriculture is concerned with growing plants (plant growing) and raising animals (animal husbandry). Therefore, its placement strongly depends both on the characteristics of these living organisms and on natural conditions: relief, climate, soils. AT agriculture employs the largest part of the world's working population - almost 50% But the share of agriculture in total world production is only about 10%.
Industry is divided into mining and manufacturing. The mining industry includes the extraction of various minerals (ores, oil, coal, gas), logging, catching fish and sea animals. It is obvious that its location is due to the location of the extracted natural resources.
Manufacturing enterprises are located according to certain laws, depending on what products and how they produce.
The service sector is a special link in the economy. Its products, unlike those of agriculture and industry, are not things. Services are activities that are important for modern people: education, health care, trade, transport and communication. Enterprises in this area - shops, schools, cafes - to serve people. Therefore, the higher the population density, the more such enterprises.
Economic activity is a set of various industries that can interact with each other and are aimed at meeting human needs.
How did business start?
Business activity must be continuous. This is one of the basic necessary principles for maintaining human life. Agriculture can be considered the very first economic activity, when a person learned to grow plants and domesticate animals. Already in the Stone Age, with the emergence of a division of labor, trade appeared.
Trade is an exchange of commodity-material assets. Initially, it arose as an exchange of surplus products or manufactured products. A person in the process of such a relationship got rid of unnecessary products or things, and in return received the necessary products. Before the advent of money, trade was of a natural nature, but with the advent of money, commodity-money relations also arose. Trade from its very appearance had a huge impact on public life.
Types of economic activity
There are several types of business activities:
Rice. 1. Agricultural activity.
The development of agriculture depends on geographical location a particular country and its climate.
- In agriculture, allocate livestock and crop production . Crop production is engaged in the selection of cultivated plants, breeding species resistant to external conditions. Animal husbandry is engaged in breeding livestock in order to obtain products: meat, milk, eggs, wool. In animal husbandry, there are: poultry farming, cattle breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding. Land plays an important role in economic activity. The future harvest depends on the fertility of the soil, therefore, in areas with a harsh climate, agricultural activity is difficult.
- Extractive and manufacturing industry is also one of the types of economic activity. Industry includes fuel, light, food, timber, non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as machine building and other industries.
Rice. 2. Timber industry.
- Construction plays an important role in the sphere of financial and economic activity. With the increase in the rate of urban growth and the relocation of people there, high-quality and affordable housing was required. Construction is engaged not only in the construction of new facilities, but also in the reconstruction of old ones.
- Services sector provides a person with tangible and intangible services. The material ones include communications, transport, consumer services, the intangible ones are health care, trade.
Rice. 3. Health care.
- There are also industries such as transport, healthcare, science, education . These industries have a good development outlook. After all, huge amounts of money are already being invested in science, healthcare and education for their further development.
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Types of economic activity
There are several types of business activities:
- A household is a household run by a group of people living together.
- A small enterprise is an economic unit, engaged in the manufacture of a relatively small amount of goods. The owner of such an enterprise can be one person or several. As a rule, the owner uses his own labor or employs a relatively small number of workers.
- Large enterprises are enterprises that produce goods in bulk. As a rule, these enterprises are formed by combining the property of the owners. An example of which enterprise is a joint-stock company.
- The national economy is an association economic activity nationwide. To a certain extent, this activity is directed by the state, which, in turn, tries to ensure the sustainable growth of the country's economy and thereby increase the welfare of the entire population.
- The world economy is economic system in which there is a relationship between different countries and peoples.
Forms of economic activity
Definition 1
The form of economic activity is a system of norms that determines the internal relations of the partners of the enterprise, as well as the relationship of this enterprise with other counterparties and government agencies.
There are several forms of economic activity:
- Individual form;
- collective form;
- corporate form.
Under individual form of economic activity refers to an enterprise whose owner is either an individual or a family. The functions of the owner and entrepreneurs are combined in one entity. He receives and distributes the income received, and also bears the risk from the implementation of his economic activities and has unlimited property liability to his creditors and third parties. As a rule, such enterprises are not legal entities. The owner of this enterprise can attract additional hired labor, but in a rather limited amount (no more than 20 people).
If speak about collective form of economic activity, there are three types: business partnerships, business companies, joint-stock companies.
Business partnerships may be in the form: full partnership and fellowship of faith. A general partnership is an organization based on collective ownership. As a rule, it is an association of several individuals or legal entities. All participants in this type of partnership bear full unlimited liability for all obligations of the partnership. The property of a full partnership is formed at the expense of the contributions of its participants and the income received in the course of carrying out their activities. All property belongs to a participant in a general partnership on the basis of shared ownership.
A limited partnership is an association where one or more of its owners bear full responsibility for all obligations of the partnership, the remaining investors are liable only to the extent of their capital.
To business companies include: society with limited liability, additional liability company. A limited liability company is an enterprise that is created by combining the contributions of legal entities and individuals. At the same time, the number of participants in a limited liability company cannot exceed the established limit, otherwise this company will be transformed into a joint-stock company within a year.
Additional Liability Company is an organization whose authorized capital is divided into shares, the size of which is determined in advance. This type society is formed by one or more persons. For all obligations of the company, all its founders bear subsidiary liability in the amount that is a multiple of the value of the contribution to the authorized capital.
Joint-stock company is a form of economic activity, all the funds of which are formed by combining the capital of the founders, as well as the issuance and placement of shares. Members joint-stock company are liable for all obligations of the company in an amount equal to the contributions.
In order to protect their commercial interests and increase the efficiency of using the capital of an enterprise, various organizational and legal forms can be combined into so-called corporate forms of entrepreneurship. These include: concerns, consortium, intersectoral and regional unions.
Concern is an association of organizations that joint activities voluntarily. As a rule, concerts have scientific and technical functions, production and social development, functions foreign economic activity and etc.
Consortium- association of the organization for the solution of certain problems, created for a while. In our country, a consortium is being created to implement government programs by organizations of any form of ownership.
Industry and regional unions are an association of organizations on contractual terms. These unions are created to carry out one or more production and economic functions.
Organization of economic activity
The organization of economic activity goes through three stages:
- Stage 1 - opportunity assessment. Initially, an objective assessment should be made of all the resources necessary for the production process. For these purposes, it is advisable to use scientific developments. The main advantage of this stage is that it helps to give a preliminary assessment of the potential for production of products precisely in those volumes and under those conditions that will be investigated, and on the basis of which the decision to launch the production of a particular product will be approved. After the production potential of the organization has been studied, the production line is launched within the framework of the formed plan.
- Stage 2 - launch of ancillary production. The implementation of this stage takes place only if there is a need. Ancillary production is quite a necessary measure, as it helps to develop new market segments and increase the chance of efficiency. financial development organizations. Maintenance of the organization can be carried out both on its own and with the help of third-party organizations and resources. At this stage, services are used to optimize the activities of production and evaluate the potential costs of funds. At the next stage, work is carried out aimed at studying the sales market and the possibilities of selling products.
- Stage 3 - marketing of products. All stages affecting the sale of products are monitored. At the same time, a record of sold products is kept, forecasts are compiled and studied, which allow making competent decisions by the management of the organization. There are situations when it is necessary to develop a methodology for after-sales service. For example, when establishing a warranty period for their products.