From lectures: The main thing for the manufacturer is to sell. good manufacturer exceeds consumer needs. There is a conflict of interest: buy cheaper / sell more expensive.
The consumer is interested in: availability of choice, price, terms of payment, delivery, after-sales service, guarantees, technical advantages. The consumer is not interested in labor productivity, profit of the enterprise. Manufacturer - create innovations, increase consumer value.
The costs are included in the self, but the costs are not all, the costs are always greater. Diversification of activities (activity, assortment) are important. A good entrepreneur creates buyers, a great market. D.b. the adequacy of the product to the requirements of the market, sensitivity to price, market change.
There is the concept of "your seller" - behaves according to the selected segment. You have to constantly add value.
"Business depends on a prosperous customer" is a Western thought. There is a social responsibility of business. Influence what people buy
2. a van with an orchestra and a soap bubble.
3. fashion. Very important for business.
4. Greed. This is good, but not economical.
5. habits.
6. commitment to the brand.
The main thing is to add value (value added). Every time a customer comes to you, you need to give him a little more than he expects. It is important to keep regular customer. Attracting a new one is 5 times more expensive than keeping an old one. An unsatisfied buyer spreads the message at 2 p. More than satisfying.
Profit is a means, not a result.
Rules for the relation of the buyer and the seller (Hanner):
- In business, you should not solve your problems, but the problems of customers. It is necessary to anticipate the needs of the buyer.
- Sell to the consumer only what he needs. You need to know why he buys (system approach).
- focus d.b. to the end user. although m.b. distributor. Sell not to a distributor, but through distributor.
- maximum value and minimum price.
- you need to anticipate what the consumer may need in the future.
Satisfied customers will come again, will pay more often and more. A satisfied customer is satisfied not only with the purchase, but also with the attitude and service.
Not from lectures: Orientation to marketing from the point of view of the manufacturer is through satisfying the needs of buyers, achieving its goal, namely making a profit. However, despite the apparent coincidence of interests of buyers and producers, there are serious problems concerning both the individual consumer and society as a whole.
What is the basis of controversy? An increase in the consumption of goods and services due to intensive measures to focus manufacturers on the needs of buyers leads to
To increase consumption natural resources
To increase the impact of all the side effects of scientific and technological development, such as industrial pollution.
These are the two main sources of controversy. The first leads to a confrontation between consumers and the long-term interests of society, i.e. a high, and sometimes excessive level of consumption today takes place at the expense of the well-being of future generations. Trying to meet the smallest needs has created a “use and discard” attitude towards products, which has led to a wasteful use of resources.
The second leads to a conflict of interests of producers and the interests of society. The main task solved within the framework of social and ethical marketing is to unite the interests of producers and consumers within the framework of the promising benefit to society as a whole.
The concept of socially ethical marketing is based on the assertion that the activities of the manufacturer should be based on knowledge of the needs of the market, and the task of the manufacturer is to achieve its goals by meeting the needs of the market in more efficient and productive ways than competitors, while simultaneously strengthening the well-being of society. generally.
These concepts take place in different countries at different times. In a single country, at different times, depending on the state of the market, one can observe the predominance of any one concept.
One consumer is truly a grain of sand in the vast sea of goods thrown onto the market. At first glance, his behavior cannot be of serious importance for an economy where huge enterprises, transnational companies, grandiose energy systems, etc. operate. Even in the market itself consumer goods the voice of an individual consumer is almost insignificant.
However, the power of the consumer and its influence on producers should not be underestimated, firstly, society consists of consumers, and secondly, each of them makes an absolutely independent decision regarding the volume and direction of upcoming purchases. These circumstances make it necessary to take into account the collective opinion of consumers, when firms, in turn, solve three main questions for themselves: what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce. If a large number of consumers agree to give their money for this product, and so much that it more than covers the costs of the producer, then the producer receives the desired profit. If not, the firm may go bankrupt (or at least lose some of its potential profits). This simple and understandable mechanism of relationship between producer and consumer operates in a market economy on the principle of feedback, automatically coordinating the volume and structure of production with the volume and structure of consumption.
There are cases when, with the help of advertising, a consumer is forced to use a product that he does not need at all or a product with imaginary advantages, that is, those that are actually absent. But these exceptions only confirm general rule most firms strive to best meet the diverse needs of people. For, firstly, it is beneficial to be honest with the consumer, it strengthens the authority of the company and expands its influence in the market. And secondly, we should not forget that in developed countries, very effective public and state mechanisms for protecting consumer rights have long been developed.
The consumer can exercise his sovereign right only in conditions of freedom of consumer choice. In other words, no one should decide for the consumer himself which goods (or sets of goods) from those offered on the market to him to purchase and which not.
Restricting the freedom of consumer choice, even if it is undertaken with the best of intentions, will, to one degree or another, destroy feedback between production and consumption. The consumer, deprived of this freedom, will not be able to give signals to the producer by his behavior, what and in what quantities should be produced and what should not. Having lost this benchmark, the manufacturer will certainly begin to produce more of some goods, and less of others than necessary. The consequence of this will be a mismatch between production and consumption, with such inevitable consequences as a shortage of some goods, an excess of others, queues, black markets, speculation, etc.
Of course, in reality, there are various restrictions on the freedom of consumer choice. They can be caused by extraordinary circumstances (war, natural disaster, crop failure, etc.) and are most often expressed in the establishment of consumption norms for cards (coupons) of some (sometimes almost all) goods. In most cases, such restrictions are of a forced and temporary nature. Direct bans on the production and sale of certain goods are justified and necessary only when the consumer properties of the goods are accompanied by adverse health effects that the consumer is not even aware of (for example, children's toys made from materials containing harmful chemical substances, medications with severe side effects, etc.).
There are, however, restrictions of a different kind, when the production of certain goods is subject to a ban in order to protect the consumer from a product that, from the point of view of society, is harmful. The history of such bans in many countries is very instructive, as it shows that they are ineffective, and sometimes lead to results that are directly opposite to those expected.
Therefore, it is important to remember that the restriction of freedom of choice is a very dangerous weapon. They must be used very carefully, without encroaching on the consumer's right to decide for himself what is good and what is bad. Otherwise, an encroachment on the freedom of consumer choice can lead to the omnipotence of administrative bodies that will decide for people what, how and how much to consume.
Our choice of goods and services for consumption, that is, the choice of the consumer, depends primarily on our needs and tastes, habits, traditions, that is, on our preferences.
Consumer preferences are the recognition of the advantages of some goods over other goods, that is, the recognition of some goods as better than others.
Buyer preferences are subjective. The assessments of the usefulness of each chosen good are also subjective. But the choice of the consumer is determined not only by his preferences, it is also limited by the price of the chosen products and his income. Just as in the scale of the economy, the resources of the individual consumer are limited. The practical unlimitedness of the consumer's needs and the limitedness of his resources lead to the need to choose from various combinations of goods, that is, to the need for consumer choice.
Social classes are characterized by clear preferences for goods and brands in clothing, household items, leisure activities, and cars. Therefore, some market actors focus their efforts on any one social class. The target social class presupposes a certain type of store in which the product should be sold, the choice of certain means of disseminating information for its advertising and a certain type of advertising messages.
Numerous reference groups have a particularly strong influence on human behavior.
Reference groups - groups that have a direct (i.e. through personal contact) or indirect influence on a person's attitudes or behavior.
Groups that have a direct influence on a person are called membership groups. These are the groups to which the individual belongs and with which he interacts. Some of these collectives are primary, and interaction with them is quite constant. These are family, friends, neighbors and work colleagues. Primary groups are usually informal. In addition, a person belongs to a number of secondary groups, which, as a rule, are more formal and interaction with which is not permanent. These are all sorts of public organizations such as religious associations, because he, as a rule, seeks to "fit" into the team. And thirdly, the group pushes the individual towards comfort, which can influence his choice of specific products and brands.
Members of his family can have a strong influence on the behavior of the buyer. The guiding family consists of the parents of the individual. From them a person receives instructions about religion, politics, economics, ambition, self-respect, love. Even when the buyer no longer interacts closely with his parents, their influence on his unconscious behavior may still be significant. In countries where parents and children continue to live together, parental influence can be decisive.
A more direct influence on everyday buying behavior comes from an individual's progeny family, i.e. his spouse and children. The family is the most important consumer buying organization within society and is subjected to extensive scrutiny. Marketers are interested in the roles of husband, wife, and children and the influence each has on the purchase of a variety of goods and services.
With age, there are changes in the assortment and nomenclature of goods and services purchased by people. In the early years, a person needs food baby food. In the years of growing up and maturity, he eats a wide variety of foods, in old age - special dietary ones. His tastes have changed over the years.
The nature of consumption also depends on the stage life cycle families. In some recent works, the classification is carried out according to the psychological stages of the family life cycle. An adult goes through certain periods of transformation in his life.
A certain influence on the nature of goods and services acquired by a person is exerted by his occupation. The worker can buy work clothes, work shoes, lunch boxes, bowling equipment. The president of a firm can buy himself expensive blue suits, travel by plane, join privileged country clubs, buy himself a large yacht. The marketer seeks to identify such occupational groups whose members show an increased interest in his goods and services. The firm may even specialize in the production of goods needed by a particular professional group.
Each person has a very specific personality type that influences his buying behavior.
Knowledge of personality type can be useful in the analysis of consumer behavior when there is certain connection between personality types and choice of products or brands.
Many people involved in marketing proceed in their activities from a concept that is directly related to the individual - a person's concept of himself (also called the image of his own "I"). We all have complex mental images of ourselves.
Thus, consumer behavior can be represented as an economically complex process of generalization and analysis of potential needs and habits that in one way or another form the magnitude of demand and have a significant impact on the structure of supply on the market. consumer market. It should be noted that economically a person is a rational being, therefore he seeks the greatest benefit from transactions, that is, he strives to make such a purchase that would satisfy his needs and at the same time be suitable for the price. The system of relative prices plays an important role here. This means that between two goods that are identical in all quality characteristics, but differ in price, the consumer will certainly choose the cheaper one.
Consumer- is the one who acquires and uses goods and/or orders services for personal, public or other needs not related to making a profit.
The following entities can act as consumers in the economy:
1) individuals and households - personal consumption;
2) firms (manufacturers) - production consumption;
3) the state - public consumption.
Consumption is the process of satisfying various needs. In this regard, the main factor influencing the buyer's choice of a particular product / service from options goods/services is the usefulness of the goods/services. Utility economic good - its ability to satisfy any need.
The category of utility in the economic sense of the word is by no means always associated with an objective improvement in the physical, moral or intellectual state of a person or society as a whole. In the economic sense of the word, goods and services that are in demand and satisfy any needs of people will have utility. For example, these may be "wrong" nutrition products. Utility will often act as a subjective category and correlate with an individual set of human needs.
In the economy, there are also marginal utility- the utility that a person receives from the use of one more unit of the good. In general, it decreases with an increase in the number of units of the consumed good. For example, one pair of winter shoes in a cold climate is very useful for a person, but each subsequent pair of winter shoes will be of less value for him.
Another manifestation human factor when choosing goods/services, there are other motivating motives for buying besides utility.
Factors that also influence consumer choice:
Limited resources (the rumor about the disappearance of salt from store shelves really helped to sell all the salt in the shortest possible time)
Fashion and changes in social demand (change of wardrobe while maintaining the previous one)
Price and quality of goods/services
Brand recognition
Habit and availability of goods/services
Desire to emphasize social status (acquisition of luxury goods)
and a number of other factors
In conditions market economy the choice for consumers is as wide as possible due to competition among manufacturers and performers. The consumer has freedom of economic behavior. This behavior can be analyzed based on the criterion of rationality. rational behavior consumer- this is a behavior that involves comparing the results of an action with costs, based on a compromise in the consumption of alternative goods with limited financial resources. This type of behavior can be characterized by a thoughtful approach to the acquisition of goods, for example, compiling lists of really necessary goods / services before buying, studying the market for relevant goods / services, maintaining a family (or other type) budget, adequate awareness of one's material capabilities, etc. An important component of such behavior is the knowledge of one's rights in the status of a consumer.
In the Russian Federation, consumer rights are regulated by a number of legal acts. Among them, the most famous
Law of the Russian Federation "On Protection of Consumer Rights":
1. Regulates relations arising between consumers and manufacturers, performers, sellers in the sale of goods (performance of work, provision of services).
2. Establishes consumer rights:
for the purchase of goods of good quality and safe for life and health;
to receive information about goods and their manufacturers;
for state and public protection of their interests (for damages).
3) Determines the mechanism for the implementation of consumer rights.
Production- this is the process of creating economic goods and services that act as the starting point of economic activity.
Work- this is the process of expedient activity of people to transform nature to meet their needs.
Manufacturer- this is the one who creates goods and services, satisfying the needs of man and society.
According to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Protection of Consumer Rights", the relevant parties interacting with the consumer are distinguished:
Manufacturer- an organization or individual entrepreneur that produces goods for sale to consumers.
Executor- an organization or individual entrepreneur performing work or providing services to consumers under a reimbursable contract.
Salesman- an organization or individual entrepreneur selling goods to consumers under a contract of sale.
In a market economy, the manufacturer has economic freedom, which is expressed in the right to independently answer the main questions of the economy and set the price for manufactured goods / services rendered (with the exception of restrictions established by law). However, the freedom of the producer, in addition to the state, is also limited by consumers, or rather, by consumer demand. In turn, the manufacturer can use the funds to artificially create or increase demand for a particular product / service.
The concept of rationality of behavior is also applicable to the manufacturer, but in this case it will be associated with the optimal use of factors of production in order to minimize costs. One of key indicators The success of the manufacturer is a high level of productivity. It is closely related to the quality level work force(qualification of workers), and with the technologies used in production, and with the efficiency of the organization of production activities.
Labor productivity- this is the amount of goods that can be manufactured by workers for a certain period of time (hour, month, year).
The main factors affecting labor productivity in the country:
1) population growth;
2) increase in the share (%) of the labor force in the population;
3) duration of working hours - the number of hours worked per year by each employee;
4) technological innovations in production.
When evaluating the effectiveness of an enterprise, the concept of "profitability" is also used.
Profitability is a measure of how effectively an organization's resources are being used to generate revenue.
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Thorstein Veblen (1857−1929), American economist, sociologist, publicist.
Studied at Yale University, PhD (1884). He taught at Cornell (1890), Chicago (1892), Stanford (1906) universities, at the University of Missouri (1910).
The founder of the institutional direction in political economy. One of the founders of the New School for Social Research in New York.
Studied the behavior of consumers, the pressure that affects them. One of the moments he described became widely known under the name of the Veblen effect. It consists in demonstrative behavior that appears when consuming goods belonging to the category of luxury goods, which emphasize the status of the consumer. In this case, a paradoxical fact is noted: with an increase in the price of a product, the level of its consumption increases.
In conditions of subordination to the requirement of conspicuous consumption, the attributes human life- such as housing, furnishings, exotic trinkets, wardrobe, food - have become so complex and burdensome that consumers cannot properly manage them without outside help.
The motive underlying ownership is rivalry; the same motive of rivalry, on the basis of which the institution of property arises, remains effective in the further development of this institution and in the evolution of all those features. social structure to which the property is related. Possession of wealth endows a person with honor, honor singles out people and makes them the object of envy.
People, perhaps proceeding from the fact that an inexpensive lifestyle indicates an inability to spend much and indicates a lack of financial success, nevertheless acquired the habit of disapproving of cheap things as essentially indecent and devoid of merit, precisely because they cheap.
Production and consumption is an integral part of people's lives and activities. Production and consumption are interconnected. You can not consume more than produced (not counting the supply of imports). Therefore, we can conclude that production is a certain regulator of the consumption of products, goods, goods and services.
In the economic literature, three levels of consumption are considered: personal and family, industrial and public.
Personal and family consumption is the consumption of food and clothing, personal transport, household services, spiritual values to meet personal and family needs. Industrial consumption - consumption of fixed and circulating assets, information, knowledge, buildings, structures. Public consumption consists in the use of spiritual and material values in order to meet the needs of the national economy, society and each person as a member of society (education, culture, art, sports, etc.).
Distinguish between final and intermediate consumption. Final consumption is the use of finished tools and objects of labor, as well as consumer products. Intermediate (current) consumption - consumption during production, when the product is still being processed (work in progress).
Examples of current consumption are the expenditure of funds by an enterprise for current (as products are produced) needs; saving Money, for example, for innovations, reconstruction, technical re-equipment when changing the production facility. Rational consumption is most often regulated by standards, norms that are established by scientists, technologists, economists, sociologists, taking into account age groups, the place of residence of the population and are advisory in nature. At the same time, each person can determine for himself the rational norms of consumed products.
There are complex relationships between the producer and the consumer of the product. The manufacturer, for example, can create a shortage of products and make the consumer dependent ("take what they offer"), in turn, the consumer can go to another manufacturer if the first one sets high prices and reduces the quality of the product.
In a market economy, the instability of the general market conditions, the management strategy is designed to help stabilize the production and economy of other activities of the enterprise. The stability of the company's income and its success directly depend on the quality of strategic decisions. However, to achieve sustainable income growth without marketing research impossible.
Methods of attracting buyers and marketing products. The problem of attracting customers and selling products is solved through marketing.
♦ Marketing is a system of organization and management of production, marketing and trading activities enterprises, firms, organizations, focused on market requirements, meeting the needs of customers in goods and services. The concept of marketing has a double meaning: as one of the management functions and as a management concept (business philosophy) in a market economy.
Marketing acts as a process of coordinating the capabilities of the enterprise and the needs of consumers. As a rule, a marketing service is created at the enterprise under the leadership of the deputy head.
The marketing department may include groups by types of products sold, for example, a group for the sale of product A, another for product B, etc.
The main marketing tools are accounting, demand forecasting, market analysis, advertising.
Accounting - a data recording system used to reflect economic activity in order to obtain an array of information for effective organization management process. There are three main types of accounting: operational, accounting and statistical.
Demand forecasting is a form of scientific foresight, the result of a special study of prospects. Forecasting can be passive (description, tracking, monitoring) and active. Active forecasting includes a program of practical actions to achieve certain, predetermined goals. Forecasting helps to make recommendations, for example, for product development, market research, communication, distribution, pricing, service deployment, management efficiency. By the time of anticipation of future events, forecasting is divided into short-term, medium-term, long-term and extra-long-term (calculated for a long term).
Analysis of the market situation - analysis of the prevailing certain period and in a specific place (region) of socio-economic, trade-organizational and other conditions for the sale of products.
The success of the firm is affirmed high quality products and services, their constant improvement and renewal, the establishment of scientifically based prices, work with industrial associations, customers, suppliers and consumers of products.
Advertising is a set of means and techniques aimed at achieving ultimate goal- selling goods and services and creating demand for them. It involves establishing contact between the seller and the potential buyer of the offered products in order to encourage the latter to purchase these products. Product advertising has a clear goal, for the implementation of which appropriate methods of influencing the client are selected. The goals of advertising include the creation and expansion of a sales market for products, the creation of an image of an enterprise, and an increase in the level of its own organization of production (intracompany advertising).
Advertising should carry arguments in favor of the product to the potential buyer, convince them of the need to purchase and use it, and demonstrate the correctness of the decision to purchase this particular product. The most common advertising methods are: direct mail advertising,
personally presented information letters, leaflets at negotiations and presentations; presentations at seminars, personal visits to managers and specialists of enterprises; advertising in the press, on radio and television. Advertising solves not only a trading problem. It builds a foundation of respect and trust not only for the firm, but also for the country that the firm represents. No advertisement will help sell the advertised product a second time if it has deceived the buyer's expectations the first time. In this case, the greater the scope of advertising work, the greater the losses.
The problem of relations between producer and consumer organizations arises very often. Ultimately, although the organization strives to obtain the maximum high profit, its activities will only be successful if it gives consumers what they want. Products will not be sold if they do not meet consumer standards or are priced unacceptably. The system of relations between producers and consumers, however, will work successfully under two conditions: if the consumer receives adequate and accurate information about the product so that he can make an informed decision, and if the consumer is free to choose what he wants. would buy. Organizations must ensure the safety of their products, improve quality control standards, appearance and product performance. As practice shows, in a market system, when a producer, a seller (intermediary) and a consumer enter into a relationship, protecting the interests of the latter is quite complicated. It is feasible in cases where the manufacturer or seller, not valuing the reputation of his company, offers the consumer a low-quality product that does not fulfill its purpose, with an expired shelf life. However, producing generally high-quality products, the manufacturer most often prefers to remain silent about defects in its design or potential hazards that may appear during operation. The consumer will receive information about this only when faced with shortcomings. In addition, the problem of product safety and quality has another, to a certain extent, ethical aspect: the country's prestige in the world market depends on the production of competitive, high-quality goods by firms.
Another, no less important moral problem in the relationship between producer organizations and consumers is advertising. Advertising is important in the process of competition between organizations and for the formation of needs potential buyers. However, here there is a problem of accuracy, veracity of information received by consumers. Even a harmless, at first glance, exaggeration is followed by the emergence of moral problems: the consumer, not receiving accurate information, is deprived of a free, reasonable, reasonable choice. Another important moral problem associated with advertising is the problem of manipulating the consumer, imposing unnecessary products on him, creating needs and desires in him that could not arise in real life.
In addition to all other obligations, organizations must remember their responsibility to the owners (investors), The main part of the many existing methods defrauding investors falls into two categories: the manipulation of investments and the dishonest use of profits or assets, leading to a decrease in the legitimate income of investors. Every year, tens of thousands of people around the world become victims of investment manipulation. According to experts, people, seduced by promises of high profits, invest more than $1 billion every year in non-existent oil developments, grandiose "inflated" projects, and so on. The management of the organization may also misuse investments, using income and resources for personal enrichment. The most commonly used method is fraudulent transactions with items of expenditure, another common move is overbilling and then dividing the difference between the overestimated and the real amount of the invoice with the supplier. Finally, there is the practice of selling confidential information to a competitor or using it to gamble on the stock exchange.
Moral problems also arise in the relationship of organizations with the local community. We are talking about the participation of organizations in ensuring its economic stability, developing the infrastructure of the area, creating new jobs, preserving enterprises on which the existence and well-being of these communities depends. Organizations also have a "moral duty of philanthropy" to support non-profitable enterprises that are important both to the existence of a particular local community and to the cultural and social development regions (education, medicine, improvement and organization of leisure).
The relationship between organizations and the environment is one of the most pressing problems of our time. The aggravation of the environmental situation on the planet has had a dual impact on entrepreneurship. On the one hand, a new and vast area of capital investment has emerged:
- - development and production of non-waste technologies and treatment equipment for various industries;
- - development of technologies and production of equipment for the disposal of industrial and household waste;
- - production of environmentally friendly food and drinking water;
- - development of the recreation industry in ecologically clean areas;
- - financing of environmental protection measures, etc.
On the other hand, capital costs have risen and many entrepreneurs must:
- - pay significant amounts in the form of fines for pollution environment and for environmental damage caused to nature;
- - change production technology, investing heavily in its modernization, taking into account existing environmental standards;
- - take into account in their activities environmental legislation, which tends to tighten its standards;
- - create an attractive "environmental image" of their company and their products in the eyes of the public and state environmental organizations;
- - cooperate with public services, representatives of local government, trade unions and public organizations in environmental protection;
- - develop a rational strategy in the field of nature management, taking into account the environmental situation in the region where the activity is carried out.
Based on a survey of executives various organizations in the United States, the following ethical issues arising in business relations:
- - Concealment of facts and incorrect information in reports during inspections;
- - release of low-quality products or the need for its constant maintenance;
- - overpricing or outright deceit during business negotiations;
- - excessive self-confidence in judgments, which can lead to damage to the interests of the company;
- - unconditional obedience to leadership, no matter how unethical and unfair it may be;
- - the presence of favorites;
- - the inability to express one's indignation and disagreement in an atmosphere of constant unethical acts;
- - the inability to pay due attention to the family or personal affairs due to the abundance of work;
- - production of products with questionable safety characteristics;
- - failure to return any things or valuables taken at the workplace, from colleagues or from company funds;
- - deliberately exaggerating the benefits of their work plan to obtain support;
- - exaggerated attention to moving up the hierarchical ladder to the detriment of the interests of the case;
- - moving up the career ladder "over the heads" of colleagues;
- - deception of employees in order to obtain benefits for the company;
- - creating alliances with dubious partners in the hope of a fluke;
- - delays and delays in the performance of their duties, which leads to a waste of time and money of the company;
- - rendering negative impact on the socio-political process by amending the legislation for bribes.
To a large extent, this list of problems is true for Russian conditions. Managers and workers who face such problems cannot follow only what they have learned about morality in their families, from teachers, in the church, etc., to solve them. Often, immoral decisions are made and impartial acts are committed by people who are extremely honest and have the best intentions.
However, intentions are good only relative to the intentions of another person. There is no standard of decency, just as there is no standard of darkness and a standard of cold. Maybe that's why, over the centuries, relations between business partners in particular and between people in general have not been resolved, but become more complicated. The human psyche has been studied for two thousand years. Scientists have created several models of the human psyche. Consider the most famous of them.