Management of the production process according to the Shewhart Deming cycle. How to conduct meetings in the sales department. Action - from the English "Act"

Cycles are everywhere. To prove the existence of cyclicity is both simple and difficult: all previous civilizational cycles have ended. If dozens of cycles have ended, then one, ours, not the first and not the last, cannot be an argument against. But there are many people who, even having realized that they are wrong, will still defend the point of view that there are no cycles in one way or another. And some people, specific people, really do not have cycles, because with the end of civilization, nothing will remain of them. And nobody. There is not even discomfort here - there is a cosmic coldness of non-existence here. And it is useless to argue with these people, because in their coordinate system they are right.

The earth is round, but it seems to be flat. This happens because the rounding radius is so large at each point that the actual rounding is invisible. But it is present, although in most human tasks it is not taken into account. For example, it is not at all necessary to know about the round earth when building airplanes - whatever it was, airplanes were built and would fly the same way. In the same way, it makes no sense to take into account historical cycles in solving everyday problems. But the solution of everyday problems would not be accurate if the constant taken from the current cycle was not taken into account; this constant is imperceptible and usually merges with the environment; it may not change over the course of a century, but it does change over the course of centuries, which leads to a misunderstanding of the ideas of a century ago.

On the example of some countries, one can notice the historical linearity; cycles do not seem to exist. These countries, for example, America or Australia, were formed in relatively recent times - and therefore there is no cyclicality in their history. This is where the above situation with the plane and the round earth comes into play; cycles are present in any case, they are just not noticeable yet.

Linear manifestations of history exist - for example, the line represents the accumulation of scientific experience. The difference is seen in the fact that manifestations of activity associated with the biological nature of a person are cyclical, while non-biological ones are usually not. Evolution is linear; the succession of generations is linear. But again, proceeding from the task, humanity will never solve linear evolutionary tasks. This period is too long. But at each point in time, one can find both a proven cycle and a proven straightness. The cycle is usually brighter and in solution practical tasks more important.

History in the ups and downs of nations is cyclical. “Still, it spins,” and since this is so, then again, sooner or later, everything comes to its end, at the same time gravitating towards the beginning. There are dozens, if not hundreds, of similar beginnings and endings in human memory. One cannot but agree with this, but one way or another, the mass consciousness does not accept this fact. Specialists know this, any person who is more or less familiar with history knows this, but there is a feeling that the truth, known to each individual, becomes secret knowledge in the mass of initiates. When gathered together, people represent history in a straight line. Or lose sight of the cycle.

Such a state of affairs could not but require a logical explanation. One way or another, one has to approach the fact that in understanding the cyclical nature of history, the psychological factor plays a greater role than scientific data. Psychologically, a person resists cyclicality. And since it is present in a wide variety of people, it cannot be attributed to the influence of education. There are deeper reasons, and the deeper they are, the closer they are to psychology and biology.

There is a subconscious rejection of cyclicity. Up to the point that a person seeks to protect his illusory world, the momentary world, from any such information intrusions. Living on a round earth is not only dangerous, because you can fall off it, but also psychologically uncomfortable. Living in one of the sections of history doomed to completion is likely to be just as unpleasant. And to live in a system of cycles nested in each other, like nesting dolls, is even worse.

The cyclical nature of history, which was a postulate for ancient people, was first described in ancient Egypt. She was feared, all the ancient Indian civilizations brought sacrifices to her. They knew about it in ancient Judea, but, as in modern society, they did not take it seriously. It was discovered for modern civilization by Giambattista Vico during the Italian Renaissance. Then Spengler returned to this topic, then Toynbee, Kondratiev developed it economically, and Gumilyov was the last to write about it. The trend can be traced in the decrease in the “size” of civilization: if the ancients spoke about the whole world, then modern thinkers limited themselves to local civilizations or simply nations. And in general, this is true: if we abstract from human chauvinism, only population-nations evolve, and other groups of evolution are not known.

Cyclicity and forecasting future states with the help of past cycles is a very ancient knowledge. As mentioned earlier, most peoples of antiquity viewed their history as a cycle with a beginning and an end. Accordingly, the first work appeared in the Renaissance - this is a cyclic scheme national development Giambattista Vico. The second, already well-known work - "The Decline of Europe" by Spengler. But these works commented on cycles without revealing their causes. So for 400 years from Vico to Spengler, not a millimeter has advanced in this direction.

Toynbee made the first attempt. The challenge theory is built as a model of changes in the activity of a nation under the influence of changes in natural or social conditions. An initial push is given, the nation, responding to it, responding to this challenge, complicates its structure, and a complicated structure automatically gravitates towards further complication. The complication of the structure of one nation, in turn, is a challenge for other nations, and their development is the result of competition. This is partly true, how can a coincidence be true. There can be too many challenges, and not every challenge a nation is born, and not every challenge a nation survives. It is not explained why some nations can answer the challenge, while others cannot and perish; but after all, the reasons for the answer are the main thing by virtue of proper causality.

The second concept was created by Gumilyov. Although it is already fifty years old, it is still considered alternative in Russia, by historians - "fabulous", and in the West - foreign and therefore non-existent. According to his concept, under the influence of unknown cosmic radiations on earth, micromutations occur among peoples living within the affected zone, leading to the appearance of people with the “passionarity” parameter - the opposite of instinct. The activity of these people leads to the primary "push", the first consequence of which is the emergence of nations. Those. in fact, Gumilev replaced Toynbee's "challenge" with the cosmic factor; everything else is pretty much the same.

If Gumilyov had written about the fluctuations of the national quality, he would not have been released from prison, and they would not even have remembered him. Passionarity is an unknown factor that does not exist and cannot exist. So it is not known whether Gumilev operated on an unknown variable, or whether he encrypted his work in this way. No one will know if it was the first or the second. But Gumilyov himself has hints that he used "algebraic solutions for arithmetic problems." Most likely, he also suspected "trigonometric solutions" - with the help of the concept of biological quality fluctuation. Passionarity is replaced by biological quality without changing the concept. And the cycles are based not on arithmetic, not on algebra, but on the trigonometric functions of oscillations. You can try to solve the "Gumilyov problem" in two steps. First of all, the word "passionarity" throughout the text is replaced by "component X". After that, another word is selected that would not violate the outline of the text. Solution: biological quality.

The biological cycle of generational change underlies all life on earth. And from this cycle it is possible to derive the same global law of cyclicity - only this time from below, and not from above, as is the case with civilizations and other large and therefore noticeable systems. Biological principles have not yet been proposed as the main approach in solving questions of the cyclical nature of history.

As a result - not just cycles, but fractal cycles - i.e. in large cycles there are small cycles, small ones generally repeat large ones, and the number of small ones is unknown. It is impossible to set dates for cycles, it is also impossible to predict the length of cycles. One can only know the great cycle and the little cycle in which the nation is at present and in which it has been in the past. You cannot set dates, but it is possible to create forecasts without dates or with approximate dates.

Now we can say: all manifestations of human activity are cyclical. There are cycles in global civilizations that claim to be called "universal", in local civilizations, in nations and in intranational groups. They are especially noticeable in empires that create civilizations.

Not only in history this has been seen, but in all areas of human and natural activity - the larger and more complex the system, the more predictable it is. The works of Spengler and Gumilyov operate with supranational systems of cycles - but this happened due to the insufficient development of biology in their time.

Cyclicity is based on socio-biological processes. More precisely, biological-social, but it is too difficult to pronounce. Man has not progressed biologically for tens of thousands, if not a million years. Lack of progress inevitably leads to cyclicality in a circle. And only the transfer of knowledge by inheritance leads to cyclicity in a spiral - each time at a slightly higher level.

The state of national systems for most parameters is an average result of the total quality of the members of nations. And the systems themselves interact according to the principle of pendulums - qualitative parameters go up and down, and if it is said that a previously unattainable maximum of development has been reached, then most likely the pendulum is at the top point, from which only a fall is possible. In interactions between peoples, it turns out that high-quality ones advance, while less-quality ones recede.

Cyclicity, in turn, must also be due to something. There must be a primary function on the crest of which civilizations rise and fall. This cyclicality cannot be political, because it existed before the rise of politics. Just as it cannot be economic, since even primitive communities are subject to it. It can only be biological - since only from biology can such global fluctuations be derived that all aspects of human existence are subject to them.

The cyclical theory will not be refuted, but it will never meet with mass understanding. In any case, understanding Western or Russian civilizations. Not only because civilization within its limits represents itself as a line directed to infinity. Most likely just because of their discomfort.

The normal human mass perception of a situation actually turns out to be the perception of a derivative of this situation. Modern man does not feel the cyclical nature of history. He may even have an idea about it, but he does not feel it psychologically. As a result, any global phenomenon is perceived as going to the absolute, as developing in a straight line. For example, since its inception, the American nation has been developing in a straight line. This just creates the illusion of a straightforward story.

There are cycles, and, therefore, beginnings and ends. Apocalyptic actually established that the end of the world is not very painful; And if it hurts, it doesn't last very long. In addition, there can be many ends of the world. In reality, the end of civilization is a whole era. Spengler and Gumilyov defined its length as 200 years of a nightmare - soldier emperors, useless wars, barbarians and moral and intellectual degeneration. But in biology there is no such cycle - 200 years. There is a period of degeneration - but it can be 5 or 20 generations. It can be predicted with a sufficient degree of accuracy for different peoples. But it cannot be stopped and you have to live in it. To live normally, you need to know the rules of a particular life.

Process Approach: The PDCA Cycle

In accordance with the ISO 9001:2008 standard, the organization must develop, document, implement and maintain a quality management system, constantly improve its effectiveness based on the requirements of the process approach.

The process approach makes it possible, in conditions of limited funds and resources, to achieve the required results at minimal cost.

The idea of ​​a process approach appeared in the late 1980s in the United States. Michael Hammer and James Champy, studying the management system of the NATO headquarters, which described its regulations in terms of processes according to the IDEF (Integrated Definition) notation, as well as studying the management system large companies, found that their management system is characterized by: a complex hierarchy, centralization, as well as the "functionality" of organizational structures. M. Hammer and D. Champi in their work "Reengineering of the Corporation" saw the key to optimizing the activities of the enterprise in the creation of new processes "from scratch".

The process approach is based on the theory of variability of Walter Shewhart, who in 1924 pointed out that all processes for the production of products / services in an organization are subject to deviations (variations) from the given values. The reasons for variations can be general (internal to the process) and special (external to the process) reasons. According to W. Shewhart, it was possible to reduce the variations in the production of products according to the necessary criteria by applying the PDCA concept in management (Plan, do (Do), check (Check), act (Act)), proposed in the book “Statistical methods with point of view of quality management "in 1939. E. Deming, developing this concept, proposed a modification of the PDCA cycle - the PDSA cycle ("Study" - to study).

In the Deming-Shewhart PDC(S)A cycle, the effectiveness of processes is provided by control feedback according to the established criterion. Management of activity processes is aimed at the effective achievement of the desired results with a given accuracy.

The main elements of the PDCA cycle are:

• P - setting goals and deciding on the necessary changes (development of a plan);
• D - implementation of changes (implementation of the plan);
• C - measurement and analysis of results (monitoring the implementation of the plan);
• A - taking the necessary actions if the results do not meet the originally planned, or standardizing the actions in case of success (correcting the plan).

The result of the process can be positive or negative. Whatever is the output of the process must be verified before the output is used by the consumer. At the plant, the quality control department checks the products, the manager approves the project, the consumer signs the acceptance certificate for the work, project or audit report. The output product can pass the verification procedure successfully, or it can be rejected and sent for revision or disposal. The owner of the process for making management decisions must receive information about the progress of the process (process indicators), about the results of the process (product indicators) and information from the consumer about the degree of his satisfaction with the product received (customer satisfaction data). To obtain information, the process owner establishes control points in the process at which information about the process is collected, rules for collecting, processing and providing this information.

When a process owner appears in this scheme, the process control loop becomes closed. Meaning management activities consists in the fact that the owner of the process continuously or at regular intervals controls the course of the process and makes managerial decisions in cases of deviation of the process parameters from the boundaries defined for the normal course of the process. The owner of the process in the course of management plans (Plan) the allocation of resources to achieve the itemized goals of the process with maximum efficiency. During the execution (Do) of the process, the owner checks (Check) the progress of the process based on the information that comes from the control points. The process owner leads operational management process, adjusting (actively intervening in the course of the process (Act)), changing the planned distribution of resources, changing plans, deadlines and results of the process in accordance with the changed situation. The activity of the process owner is cyclic in the normal course of the process or aperiodic in cases of problem situations that require immediate intervention.

Table. Description of the PDCA cycle

Planning activities and monitoring its results are the most important components of the management cycle or the so-called "management loop", which is characterized by the presence of a number of periodically following each other components - stages. The control loop reflects the continuity (cyclicality) of the control process.

The use of a process approach in management allows you to track the progress of management at each stage and, as a result, increases its efficiency and effectiveness. According to ISO 9001:2008, the process approach refers to the identification of processes and their management (primarily ensuring their interaction). At the same time, the identification of the main processes is not only their enumeration, but also the definition of the boundaries, the strategic significance of each process, as well as an analysis of the need for their optimization.

The ISO 9000-2005 standard establishes the need to determine the sequence and interaction of these processes.

In terms international standard ISO 9000 “Process is a set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs”.

It is more correct to write the definition like this:

A process is a set of interrelated and interacting activities that transforms inputs into planned outputs.

The scheme of the process in the form of a “black box” model, in which there is an entrance and an exit, was first proposed by the famous cyberneticist N. Wiener in the middle of the 20th century. However, the black box model, unlike the Shewhart-Deming cycle, did not take into account feedback.

The management process is a certain set of management actions aimed at achieving goals by converting resources at the "input" (financial, material, technical and personnel) into the required result of ensuring life at the "output" of the system.

The output of the process (product) has value for the consumer. M. Porter in 1980 introduced the concept of "process orientation", considered the main principle of the organization's activity - the interaction between the links of the chain in which value is created. Thanks to the model of the value chain (Value Chain) by M. Porter, it is customary to subdivide the organization's processes into main (adding value to the consumer) and auxiliary (from the point of view of the consumer, not adding value).

Within the process, the use and processing of material or financial flows, information into other flows or services takes place. At the same time, subdivisions are considered as participants in a chain of interrelated processes aimed at achieving the global goal of ensuring the life of the system. Analysis and improvement are carried out in relation to the process as a whole to achieve the goal in the prevailing conditions.

The process approach is based on the following principles.

1. The activity of the company is considered as a set of processes.
2. The execution of processes is subject to mandatory documentation and formal description.
3. Each process has a consumer (internal or external) that defines the requirements for the process and its results, which form the purpose of the process.
4. Each process has a person responsible for its functioning and result.
5. Each business process is characterized by key indicators that describe its execution, result or impact on the outcome of the organization as a whole.

The basis of the process approach is the principle of regulating the sequence of operations performed. Organization of processes is a tool for controlling the execution of tasks, as well as coordinating the temporal and spatial aspects of their implementation.

A type of activity is not some specific activity (for example, hammering a nail taken in a box into a wall in a room in order to hang a recently presented picture), which has a specific result, but a concept formed by highlighting common features. Based on this, it turns out that a process consisting of activities is not a real activity, but a representation of a real activity, moreover, a representation by generalization. In other words, a process is a model of real activity.

To make sure we're on the right way, let's try to assume the opposite: a process is a specific activity that gives a specific (tangible) result at the output. A funny situation arises: for example, an enterprise that manufactures nuts. Is the production of one nut a process? Let's say. But then, if the enterprise wants to move to process management, should it allocate as many processes as it produces nuts? Reason, as they say, protests against such a conclusion. Well, maybe then the company needs to allocate as many processes as how many types of nuts are produced? This decision, too, I must say, does not cause delight.

The system approach lies in the fact that we consider the organization as a system, as a set of interrelated elements. As such elements, we can consider subdivisions, i.e. functional-hierarchical management may well be systemic and provide the result we need. However, one day the question will arise: at what cost is the result given to us? What is the effectiveness of our activities? Is there a way to increase it? And the answer will be: there is a way and it consists in revising the constituent parts of our system. Managing subdivision elements is inefficient, it is necessary to move to a different structure of the system: elements - processes.

Note that for an enterprise, from the point of view of its organizational structure, nothing changes when moving to processes: it still remains a set of departments. But from the point of view of management, cardinal changes are taking place: objects target management now become not divisions, but processes. In particular, the conveyor is the process, i.e. the very "set" that "transforms inputs into outputs" and which must be managed as a single whole.

So, from the point of view of a systematic approach process management- this is a change in the point of view on the composition of the elements of the system: instead of the representation "system = a set of departments", we use the representation "system = a set of processes".

What are the limitations of the process approach? They can be installed for the following reasons.

The process is, in turn, a system, the constituent parts of which are the very “activities” that were discussed at the beginning. The process, strictly speaking, can be both "end-to-end", i.e. the entrance to it will be the entrance to the organization, and the exit - the exit from the organization, and local, including only a small area of ​​activity.

The advantage of the process approach is based on the fact that all activities aimed at obtaining the final (i.e. delivered to the consumer) result become a single object of management. And this inevitably leads us to the conclusion that the larger the processes (the closer they are to "end-to-end"), the more clearly the advantages of the process approach are manifested. Conversely, the more we fragment processes, the more we nullify the advantages of the method. After all, we remember that our task is to get rid of local optimization.

Thus, it makes sense to apply the process approach, highlighting several (on the strength of a dozen!) Processes that are critical to the organization. And these processes should be "end-to-end". Already even the next level of detail raises doubts about the appropriateness. Of course, the owner of the process (manager of the process) can carry out detailing for himself if he needs to, but the expediency of detailing from the point of view of including the second level in the organization's process system is negligible. For systemic process management at the organizational level, this is not required at all.

It can be stated that:

1) the process approach is a means of increasing the efficiency of activities by eliminating local optimization,
2) the process approach is a change in control objects,
3) processes (objects of control) should be "end-to-end" and in a small amount. The fragmentation of processes contradicts the task of the process approach.

How many processes should a company allocate and on what basis? The answer to this question is already obvious: one process, if we consider only the manufacture of the main product and abstract from other necessary activities. The enterprise needs to eliminate local optimization in the production of products, which can be achieved by isolating the “Production of products” process and managing it as a system.

The purpose of the process approach is to ensure the effectiveness of activities. Management based on the process approach implies the interpretation of process No. 1: it is pointless to increase the efficiency of the activity by managing the production of a single part.

Let's ask ourselves a question: why, for what tasks can we need process models?

There are only two such tasks:

1) regulation of activities and
2) activity analysis.

In the first case, it is necessary to develop a model that would serve as a model, standard, norm - in other words, would describe the system of processes as it should look. Those. the solution of the problem of activity regulation leads us directly to the creation of the “as it should be” model.

And now it is not difficult to guess that the second task is related to the construction of the “As is” model. And in fact: if it is required to analyze an activity, then this activity should be described in some way, displayed as it is actually performed.

Stage 2. Analysis of the model of the organization "as is".
Stage 3. Development of a model of the organization "as it should be."
Stage 4. Development of a plan for the transition from the state of "as is" to the state of "as it should".
Stage 5. Implementing changes and building the organization "the right way."

There is one question for such a plan: what is the “as is” analysis of the model in step 2 for? If the result of this analysis is not the establishment of what is "wrong", then the goals of this analysis are not clear. And if these goals are nevertheless understood correctly, then the establishment of what is “not so” is possible only by comparison. And the comparison should be with how "should be." But, excuse me, what will we compare with at stage 2, if we plan to build the model “as it should” only at stage 3?

It turns out that if we have already planned the analysis of the model “as is”, then it can be performed only after the development of the model “as it should be”, otherwise, what can be compared with the analysis? Those. The sequence should look (at a minimum) like this:

Stage 1. Development of the model of the organization "as is".
Stage 2. Development of a model of the organization "as it should be."
Stage 3. Analysis of the model of the organization "as is".

Let's consider the tasks of modeling "As is" and "As it should be". Technologies for solving these problems are traditionally considered the same. And this is a mistake! And the mistake is costly!

Let's try to figure it out. Let's start with building a "How it should be" model, i.e. solution of the problem of regulation. Where do you usually start building any models? They go to those who perform the activity that needs to be modeled, ask how it is performed, and on the basis of these interviews they try to build a model. Question: is this method suitable for creating a model that should serve as a norm, a standard? Doubtful. And that's why. What should the “How should be” model reflect? How the activity should be carried out. What will reflect the model that we build based on the surveys? How the activity is performed. It turns out that if we assign the status “as it should be” to such a model, then we will thereby make the current way of performing this activity a law (norm). And where is the guarantee that he can be such? This is first. Secondly, we have every right to use the concept of "process quality" as the degree of compliance with its specified requirements. And if there is a normative (reference) construction of the process, then the quality of the real process will be determined by how close it is to the reference one. But what if the exemplary (normative, reference) process is built on the basis of a survey and reflects real practice? Then we will always have 100% quality! Why? Yes, because when we start building the "As is" model, the technology will be the same - a survey, respectively, and the result will be the same. A match is guaranteed regardless of how the process is performed and whether it achieves the goals for which it was intended.

The essence of the “How should be” model is to present the activity in such a way that it should be performed, i.e. some end state. In fact, these are requirements for building a process. And who makes such demands? Supervisor. And from a technical point of view - an expert in this field. And who is our specialist in this area, who can say how the processes should be built, required by the system quality management? That's right - the quality manager. What is the guiding thread for him? That's right, all that knowledge on building management systems in general and specific (for example, according to the model of the same ISO 9001), in particular. It was the quality manager who was taught how to build a QMS (quality management system) correctly, how processes (system elements) should be built, and it is in this knowledge that its value for the organization lies. There are already specialists of other profiles there.

Thus, the quality manager himself, without asking anyone, develops a normative model "How it should be", based on the system-wide requirements and the requirements of the quality management model chosen by the organization. After all, let's say, no one is surprised that the chief accountant builds accounting processes in the organization and does not consult with anyone. Try to offer him your point of view on how these processes should look like. The reaction is easy to imagine. So, QMS processes are exactly the same diocese of a quality manager! This diocese was given to him to manage and he is the sovereign master here, he establishes the laws of activity within the framework of the QMS.

So what do we have? The quality manager draws a "reference route", but no one guarantees that the organization follows it. To understand how we adhere to the planned “route”, it is necessary to reflect our current path, the actual execution of processes, if we leave the allegory.

And this is where we go to where this activity is done and start asking how it is done and building the "As is" model. And then there will be an analysis of this model, comparing it with the “As it should be” model.

What condition must be met for the analysis to be successful? Answer: the “As it should be” and “As is” models should be comparable, i.e. it is important to allow such a comparison.

The "As is" model and the analysis in question may be needed in the internal audit of the QMS. If the activity is indicated on the “As should be” model, but in practice (in the “As is” model) it is not, then a discrepancy arises. For example, according to the QMS process model, the process owner must analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the process, but this is not the case in life - management occurs exclusively “by event”.

The “How it should be” model, in fact, is “eternal”, it may need to be changed if the quality manager made a mistake when compiling, or the management chose a different quality management model, or something else in the same vein. But the “lifetime” of the “As is” model is much shorter: they conducted an analysis, made changes to the practice and the model to the archive - it has lost its relevance. Here, by the way, lies the risk that constantly manifests itself in process modeling projects and reduces the efforts of teams to “no”: while they were compiling their model based on surveys, activities have already changed and everything needs to be reviewed.

Boyd's Theory: OODA Cycle

Recently, there have been more and more references to the abbreviation OODA and the name of its author, Colonel John Boyd.

The cycle (loop) of Boyd, presented in 1995, consists of four components: Observe (“observe”), Orient (“orient”), Decide (“decide”) and Act (“act”). There is a simple version and an extended version. Components of the OODA cycle:

• Observation (observation) - the transformation of changes in the external environment into the form of data signals that can be used in the future;
• Orientation (orientation) is a cognitive process of evaluating data in accordance with the context, endowing data with meaning (sensemaking), converting data into information, analyzing and synthesizing data to form the current mental perspective (model);
• Decision (decision) - the choice of alternatives from a number of possible ones, determining the sequence of actions based on the current mental perspective (model);
• Action (action) - the physical execution of the decisions made, the impact on the environment.

The Russian abbreviation for the Boyd cycle is NORD.

Rice. The simplest representation of an OODA loop

Rice. Extended Boyd scheme

Colonel John (Richard) Boyd (1927-1997) US Air Force aviator and military strategist of the late 20th century. His theoretical views had a significant impact on the military and business spheres.

He graduated from the University of Iowa (BA in Economics) and Georgia (BA in Engineering).

From 1945 to 1951 he served as a US Air Force pilot. Considered an ace. He earned the nickname "Forty Second Boyd" because in a dogfight he could defeat any pilot in less than 40 seconds. Died of cancer at the age of 70.

In the early 60s, Boyd, together with civilian mathematician T. Christie, developed the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M Theory) air combat theory. Publications on this topic were closed, and yet they have become a kind of standard in the development of combat aircraft. E-M theory served as the basis for adjusting the F-15 project and substantiating the program for creating the FXX light fighter (F-16 and F / A-18).

Participated in several air battles during the Korean War, in all air fights came out the winner.

Having retired from military service in 1975, J. Boyd continued as a consultant to the Office of the Undersecretary of Defense in the Systems Analysis Division. Boyd is rumored to have been credited with developing a strategy for attacking Iraq during the first Gulf War. What is certain is that in 1981 he delivered his presentation "Images of Conflict" personally to Dick Cheney. In 1990, due to failing health, Boyd moved to Florida, but Cheney called him back to work on plans for Desert Storm. It was Boyd who came up with the idea of ​​the "backhand" in this campaign. In a letter to the editor of Inside the Pentagon, former Marine Corps Commander General Ch. Krulak wrote: “The Iraqi army was plunged into a moral and intellectual collapse ... John Boyd was the architect of this victory, and it gave the impression that that he, as it were, commanded an aviation wing or a maneuverable division in the desert.

Being a scientist by turn of mind, Boyd engaged in a systematic analysis of the following situation - he was interested in the question of why the MIG-15 fighters used by Korea, which formally surpassed the American F-86 opposing them in most indicators, were inferior to the latter in terms of victories. This aspect of Boyd's activity is the focus of Franz Osing's book Science, Strategy and War. The Strategic Theory of John Boyd ”(Science, Strategy and War. The Strategic Theory of John Boyd), which outlines the biography and all the stages in the formation of Boyd as a scientist. Can't help but be struck by the uncharacteristic of a military man life path from a fighter pilot to a thinker and philosopher. Before retiring, Boyd relied on military science and his own intuitions in his writings - he did not have a serious education. Realizing this, in his forties, Boyd decided to compensate for the lack of theoretical knowledge and get serious physical and mathematical training. At the university, he mainly dealt with thermodynamics, which led him to study the nature of complex systems. At that moment, he realized that, it turns out, there are theoretical prerequisites for what he had done up to that time, based simply on common sense. He dealt with complex systems in practice, not knowing about the existence of chaos theory, the theory of complex systems and other disciplines that developed in the second half of the last century. From that moment on, he went on a completely independent path. To begin with, the ex-colonel, as a military man should, compiled a reading list for several years and carefully studied it. The result was a combination of military pedantry with high science that still has no analogues.

The main element of Boyd's theory is the OODA cycle. In accordance with the ideas of J. Boyd and his followers, any activity in the military sphere, with a certain degree of approximation, can be represented as a cybernetic model OODA (Observe - observe, Orient - navigate, Decide - decide, Act - act). This model assumes multiple repetition of the action loop, composed of four successive interacting processes: observation, orientation, decision, action. In fact, the situation develops in a spiral, and at each stage of this spiral, interaction with the external environment and the impact on the enemy are carried out. The model is usually classified as cybernetic, since it implements the “feedback” principle, according to which part of the output from the system is again fed to its input in order to clarify, and, if necessary, correct the development of the system at subsequent stages.

In a number of official doctrinal documents of the US Department of Defense, the OODA loop is considered as a single standard decision-making cycle model for command and control systems (C2 systems), both friendly and enemy troops. The articles devoted to Boyd's theory analyze a wide variety of cyclic models of activity and decision-making that are used in various fields of scientific and practical knowledge. Most authors state that the OODA cycle in terms of the composition of functional blocks, model and cognitive capabilities is a kind of “golden mean”.

Table. The most famous cyclic models of activity.

The table also lists some of the most well-known cyclical models used in project management, decision making, quality management, psychology, and the military. Of particular note is the correspondence of Boyd's loop to the general methodology of the scientific method: observation - formation of a hypothesis - testing of a hypothesis - construction of a theory corresponding to observational data. The scientific method serves to test theories against experiments and uses experiments to form new theories or correct existing ones. The similarity between the ideology of the Boyd cycle and the scientific method is, to some extent, confirmation of the interdisciplinary nature of the OODA theory.

Although the Boyd loop was originally born for military applications, this model has subsequently been successfully used to model activity and decision making in business, politics, and sociology. According to Boyd's theory, each person or organization, when solving the problems they face, has its own decision-making and activity loop. Let's take a closer look at each of the four individual elements of this loop.

Observation is the process of collecting information necessary to make a decision in a given case. Necessary information can be obtained from both external and internal sources. Internal sources of information are elements of the loop feedback. Sensors, as well as other channels for obtaining information, are used as external ones.

Orientation is the most responsible and cognitively most difficult stage in the entire OODA cycle. This idea was repeatedly emphasized by J. Boyd in his speeches. The orientation stage consists of two sub-stages: destruction (destruction) and creation (creation). Destruction involves breaking the situation into small elementary parts that are easier to understand. The person or organization making the decision will strive to break down or decompose the problem to such a level that the newly formed components of the problem become close to standard or typical situations for which the decision maker (decision maker) has a solution plan. Familiarization with these elementary typical subtasks is achieved through education, training, experience and instruction. Such familiarization is possible only on the basis of pre-developed doctrinal guidelines and a multitude of plans. The decision maker simply identifies the current situation in relation to those with which he is familiar, and applies a pre-prepared action plan for this subtask. These constituent elementary subplanes are then combined into overall plan actions, which corresponds to the “creation” sub-stage. If there are no real plans from which a solution can be chosen, then the process remains at the orientation stage and further decomposition of the problem is carried out. If it is not possible to develop a plan with a realistic chance of success, then subsequent grinding can lead to a cycle stop.

Decision making is the third stage of the OODA cycle. If by this stage the decision maker was able to form only one real plan, then a decision is simply made whether to carry out this plan or not. If several alternative options for action are formed, then the decision maker at this stage selects the best of them for subsequent implementation. The choice of the best plan can be carried out according to the criterion of efficiency - cost.

Under time constraints, a plan that meets the requirements of speed and reliability is most preferable.

Action (action) - the final stage of the cycle, involving the practical implementation of the chosen course of action or plan. Action involves the issuance of an order or instruction, a physical attack, active defense, movement in space, or control of sensors in order to improve surveillance in the next combat cycle.

In his work, John Boyd emphasized "tempo" - the rapid rhythm of passing through a cycle. He argued that whoever goes through the states of the NORD cycle faster and better will win the war. In Soviet military theory, a similar principle of "Three Y" is known - preempt in detection, preempt in deployment, preempt in fire damage.

The created cycle is not limited to application to the actions of fighter pilots. It is able to describe the operation of any other types of agents. For example:

Director of company:

• Observes the situation in the market and the dynamics within the organization itself
• Analyzes current trends, looks for opportunities, identifies potential problems
• Makes strategic decisions
• Communicates its decisions to the departments of the company and monitors their implementation

• Enters the room and looks at the dirty places
• Analyzes what and how to wash, and whether it should be done at all
• Formulates quick plan actions in your head
• Sweeps and washes with his own hands

Microcontroller:

• Receives input from the outside world
• Processes signals
• Generates a sequence of output signals
• Sends output signals to the outside world

Because the NORD cycle turned out to be so universal, it quickly spread to other areas. Initially, the US Air Force adopted a similar SHOR/SHOR (Stimulus-Hypothesis-Option-Response) model to describe operations at the strategic command level. Then the model began to be widely used in other branches of the military. Then she came to the paramilitary and commercial areas.

Why is the NORD loop so important for control automation? There are two reasons for this:

Reason 1. When creating control automation systems, people do a lot of analysis. This analysis simplifies and abstracts all the complexities of reality into a small number of well-defined functions. However, when these functions are combined, it often turns out that they do not match each other enough and do not correspond to the existing reality, as well as gaps appear in places where they should not be. To improve the situation, it is necessary to perform a reverse process - synthesis, in order to recreate the system from individual functions and check how it meets expectations. But it's not so easy... The NORD cycle gives us a synthetic model that allows us to combine individual functions into a natural continuous flow in order to bring it closer to reality and remove the gaps that appear.

Reason 2. NORD cycle is highly versatile. It is able to describe the work of any agent at any level of management. Moreover, it does not depend on whether automation is present or not. This allows you to describe the processes, starting with a completely manual level, then gradually increasing the level of automation, but without changing the model itself.

There are several known shortcomings of the classic OODA cycle:

• The OODA cycle processes have never been detailed or formalized.
• The NORD model was developed on the basis of observations of strictly defined agents (fighters)
• Unclear decision boundaries
• NORD loop does not determine whether processes are performed by humans or automated systems
• The NORD model assumes competing interactions between agents. Its use in cooperative interactions has not been confirmed.
• The NORD cycle lacks a comprehensive, meaningful planning process. Emphasis on pace involves the use of pattern thinking
• There is no learning process in the NORD cycle

When substantiating his theoretical views, in particular when forming the theory of the OODA cycle, Boyd sought to reinforce them with philosophical justifications using three main scientific theorems:

1. Godel's incompleteness theorems: any logical model of reality is not complete (and possibly not consistent) and must be continuously improved (adapted) taking into account new observations;
2. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: There is a limit to our ability to observe reality with a certain accuracy. Any small observational errors included in the calculations may lead to an increase in the volume of inaccuracies over time;
3. the second law of thermodynamics: the entropy (chaos) of any closed system always tends to increase, therefore, the nature of any given system is constantly changing, even if measures are taken to preserve it in its original state. Moreover, the actions we take to affect any system will have an unintended side effect, which can actually lead to an increase in the rate of change of the system's entropy (and, therefore, to chaos).

It was on the basis of these considerations that Boyd concluded that in order to correspond to reality, it is necessary to carry out actions in a continuous cycle, in interaction with the environment, taking into account its constant changes.

In addition to these theorems, Boyd drew on the evolution of Darwin to substantiate his views. Assuming that natural selection operates not only in the biological environment, but also in the social one (manifested in the survival of people in wars and in business under conditions market competition). Combining these points listed above, John Boyd hypothesized that the OODA cycle of action and decision is the central mechanism of adaptation and that the advantage in the speed of its cycle of action and the accuracy of assessments provides an advantage over the opposing side and leads to the achievement of victory in hostilities.

In his theorizing, Boyd divided war into three elements:

1. moral warfare: the destruction of the will of the enemy to achieve victory by separating him from allies (or potential allies) and internal fragmentation, undermining the common faith and common views;
2. mental warfare: deformation and distortion of the enemy's perception of reality based on disinformation and the creation of misconceptions about the situation;
3. physical warfare: the destruction of the enemy's physical resources (weapons, manpower, infrastructure and supplies).

In fact, three areas of obtaining the effect of military operations were recognized, which subsequently served as the creation of the theory of planning operations based on effects (EBO - Effect Based Operations).

The theory of J. Boyd as a whole meets three main criteria for the most general laws and patterns that are interdisciplinary in nature:

• it is a theory that explains the principles of how things work, recognized by a wide range of scientists;
• it goes beyond the military field in which it originated and is already being used in other areas of science;
• it is suitable for business use.

At present, the OODA loop has become the standard for describing the decision cycle in many fields of knowledge.

Abroad, especially in the United States and other English-speaking countries, the idea of ​​Boyd's noose has become a lifesaver "icon" that many believe in both the military and business. The OODA cycle has become part of the military doctrinal documents of the US, UK and Australian Departments of Defense.

In 2004, Colonel Boyd was posthumously awarded the US National Defense Award (The Thomas D. White National Defense Award). This award is given to citizens who have made the most significant contribution to strengthening the defense. Suffice it to say that aircraft designer Igor Sikorsky and former US Presidents George Bush Sr. and B. Clinton are among those awarded this honorary award in different years.

The OODA Cycle in a Competitive Environment

A distinctive feature of the OODA cycle from other cyclic models is that in any situation it is always assumed that there is an adversary or rival with whom an armed struggle, rivalry or competition is being waged. The adversary, rival or competitor also acts and makes decisions within the same loop.

In a number of cases, when there is no opposing side, its role can be played by a dynamically changing external environment. An example of such a situation is actions and decision-making in the context of catastrophes and natural disasters.

There are two main ways to achieve competitive advantage in the implementation various kinds professional, including military activities. The first way is to quantify your action cycles faster. This will allow you to act as the first number and force your opponent to react to your actions. The second way is to improve the quality of your decisions, that is, to make decisions that are more in line with the situation than those of your opponent. Better decisions can lead to better results than quick but inadequate or ill-calculated actions. Given these considerations, at each step of the process, it is necessary to strive for gradual qualitative and quantitative improvements. Let us consider in more detail these two areas of obtaining competitive advantages.

Speed ​​up the OODA cycle. According to Boyd's theory, it is necessary to "regulate" the process of the opponent's activity from the inside or win due to a faster own loop of actions than that of the opponent. In turn, the acceleration of the decision-making process can lead to two types of effects. The first effect is purely offensive in nature. You can begin to carry out your plan first and thereby bring about a change in the situation before your adversary begins to act. The lag in the speed of action leads to the accumulation of lag time over several cycles and subsequently to a systemic crisis. If your plan requires the participation of the enemy (for example, the enemy must have a certain location), the initiative in actions allows you to achieve certain conditions before starting the implementation of the planned actions. This first-strike advantage is translated into a simple formula that American military analysts almost never forget: you can kill the enemy before he fires.

The second component of the effect of accelerating OODA's own action cycle is defensive. A person or organization with an advantage in the speed of the cycle of actions is able in some cases to avoid the damaging or harmful effects of its adversary. In other words, you can become a "non-cooperative target" by creating a mismatch with the attacker's expectations. The state of non-compliance with the enemy's expectations is observed, for example, when you move from a given point in space, in which the attacking enemy has fixed you, to another position where you should not be according to the enemy's typical plans.

Qualitative improvement of the OODA cycle in this case means that the quality of your decisions will be better than those of your opponent. Considering that bad decisions are generally unacceptable, we ask ourselves the question - how can these decisions be improved?

The assessment of the level of quality of decisions made is not an absolute value, but a relative one, therefore, to achieve competitive advantage in this component, there are two ways: to improve your decisions and to achieve a deterioration in the decisions made by the enemy side. Improving the quality of one's own decisions can be achieved in various ways, which include the use of modern formal mathematical methods, the improvement of information, analytical and intelligence support, the use of automated control systems, decision support systems, expert and advisory systems, education and training. Teachings and training are the most in a general way improving our decision making process. It is in the course of exercises and trainings that the composition of the information that is necessary in specific practical situations is clarified, and confidence is gained in the correctness of the decisions made.

When improving your OODA cycle, you should constantly remember that there are real opportunities to reduce the quality of the enemy’s decision-making cycle and activities by creating interference and counteracting reconnaissance and surveillance systems (at the observe stage), misleading the enemy (at the observe and orient stages), making uncharacteristic and unpredictable decisions, sometimes called surprises (at the orient stage). It is also possible to weaken the effectiveness of enemy actions at the stage of using weapons (at the act stage) by using elements of active protection, for example, dynamic armor, thermal and radar decoys.

Of the four stages of the OODA cycle, three are directly related to information processing and computer technology. The fourth stage (Action - action) is generally "kinematic" in nature and is associated with moving in space, protecting and defeating the enemy based on firepower.

In order to maintain the time frame of the OODA-cycle of actions of friendly forces and ensure a higher pace of battle than that of the enemy, it is necessary to accelerate all four stages of the cycle implemented by the troops (forces). During the twentieth century, all the efforts of the military, scientists and engineers were aimed at improving weapons and technologies in terms of the kinematic part of the OODA loop. The result of these efforts was an increase in the mobility, accuracy and firepower of weapons.

However, at the present stage, the technological limit of the kinematic part of the OODA cycle has come - more powerful types of weapons cause unacceptable collateral damage, and faster and more secure weapon platforms and means of delivering the damaging factor to the target imply exorbitant material costs at the present stage. So far, this is the case in the case of hypersonic aircraft and weapons based on new physical principles.

The first three steps of the OODA cycle are directly related to the processes of collecting information, distributing it, comprehending, analyzing and making decisions based on the information received. The faster the collection, distribution, analysis, perception of information, the faster the decision is made. It is the speed and correctness of decision-making that are most important in real combat operations. Networking is a mechanism for accelerating the observation and orientation phases, as well as increasing efficiency, for the decision phase. In the most general case, the formation of network structures is aimed at reducing the time of the combat cycle and increasing the pace of combat (military) operations at all levels of the military organization.

The effectiveness of network structures is confirmed by Metcalfe's mathematical law, according to which the "usefulness" and "efficiency" of a network is proportional to the square of the number of its nodes. This law, transferred from the field of web commerce to the military sphere, gives a kind of maximum possible assessment the effectiveness of the system of sensors located on the platforms of weapons and military equipment on the assumption that the sensors provide timely and reliable information.

Continuous management

Continuous management is one of the two key principles of goal-oriented management. It is based on the concept of the NORD cycle. This principle states: “The operation of any active element in control system can be represented as an information processing process that goes through 4 specific states: Observation, Orientation, Decision and Action.

By Active Element (or Controlling Element) we mean an element of the system that is actively involved in the management process. It can be a person, a group of people, a decision support system, a robot, or a simple microcontroller.

The Continuous Control Principle gives us a universal model for considering the operation of any active element:

Observation: The active element receives initial information from the outside world (observable world)

Orientation: Active element interprets information, makes certain conclusions (understood, interpreted world)

Solution: The active element forms a plan of action in accordance with its goals and the situation understood (action plan)

Action: The active element acts according to the plan, performs actions on its own or delegates them to other active elements. Actions lead to changes in the system and environment (obtained results).

Observation: The active element receives new information from the outside world containing changes caused by actions taken or external factors.

Orientation: The active element interprets information, compares it with expectations, draws certain conclusions

Solution: The active element makes adjustments to the action plan, or generates new plan if the previous one was successful or failed

Action: The active element takes new actions or delegates them to other active elements

The cycle repeats over and over...

The specific work performed by the active element in some state of the OODA cycle is called the "Control Function":

Observation functions: extraction of initial information from the outside world, preliminary verification and consolidation of information obtained from various sources

Orientation (analysis) functions: interpretation of information, comparison with expectations (plans) and development of conclusions

Decision (decision-making) functions: generation or correction of action plans
Action (execution) functions: execution or delegation of actions, potentially with minor adjustments to adapt to a changing situation

It is important to understand that a OODA loop is not a "deterministic finite state machine". Loop states represent stages in the flow of information processing. All states can be active at the same time.

There is another interesting point. Most of you may have heard of the pyramid Data - Information - Knowledge - (Results):

• Data - raw raw information
• Information - processed, interpreted, up-to-date information
• Knowledge - information for execution, action plans
• Results - information that appeared as a result of actions, the effects of the actions performed

This fact is another confirmation that the OODA cycle describes the flow of information processing in any control system, which turns the initial information into actions and results.

Why is the principle of Continuous Management so important?

When people develop automated systems they do a lot of analysis. By doing this, they isolate control functions and implement them. But when these functions are placed in single system, they may not quite fit with each other or with the existing reality. As a result, the created ACS are incomplete, contain many gaps and do not fully meet the needs of the business.

To improve the situation, it is necessary to take a step opposite to analysis - synthesis. The Continuous Control Principle uses the OODA cycle as a synthetic model to combine control functions, link them into a natural flow of information processing, recreate the entire system and see how it works as a whole.

The Continuous Control Principle helps close the gaps in the automation of a single Active Element:

• Gaps in information and functionality: presence of required Control Functions and all required information, continuous flow of information through Control Functions
• Gaps in time: Control functions are able to work in parallel, information is processed at different stages (states of the OODA cycle) simultaneously.

The Kolb cycle is one of the learning models based on the gradual formation of mental actions.

It was written by adult learning psychologist David A. Kolb. In his opinion, the learning process is a cycle or a kind of spiral. This is a kind of cycle of accumulation of personal experience, in the future - reflection and reflection, and as a result - action.

The main 4 stages of the Kolb model are:

1) Direct, specific experience (concrete experience) - any person should already have some experience in the field or area that he wants to learn.

2) Observation and reflection or mental observations (observation and reflection) - this stage involves thinking and analyzing a person's experience, knowledge.

3) The formation of abstract concepts and models or abstract conceptualization (forming abstract concepts) - at this stage, a certain model is built that describes the information received, experience. Ideas are generated, relationships are built, new information is added regarding how everything works, is arranged.

4) Active experimentation (testing in new situations) - the last stage involves experimentation and testing the applicability of the created model, concept. The result of this stage is a direct new experience. Then the circle closes.

Stage name	Essence	Result
Experience gained	A person tries to do something from what he learns in practice, and in the way he can now, regardless of whether his skills are sufficient.	Understanding the need for further learning (did not work out or did not work out too well) or the conclusion that everything is fine anyway. Obviously, in the latter case, no further steps are needed.
Reflection	Analysis of the pros and cons of the experience gained, conclusions about what was done successfully and what could have been done better or differently.	Preparedness for the need for change and learning, in some cases - full or partial knowledge of how to act correctly.
Theory	Obtaining theoretical knowledge on how to act correctly in conjunction with the acquired experience and its analysis.	Received correct algorithms actions for the future.
Consolidation in practice	Development of the theory, translation of knowledge into skills and abilities, adjustment by the manager.	The necessary skills are fully or partially worked out and consolidated.

The main dangerous moment of the Kolb cycle can be demotivation and a decrease in the self-esteem of the individual in the event that the experience gained is frankly unsuccessful. Therefore, if you decide to use the Kolb cycle in working with employees, be patient and think in advance how you will act in such a situation. When using this method, you will need all your feedback art, knowledge of the rules of criticism.

Kolb (1984) noticed that different people have a clear preference for different behavior - practical actions or theorizing. Then he suggested that most of the time we learn in one of four ways:

• concrete experience (Concrete Experience);
• reflective observation (Reflection);
• abstract modeling (Abstract Conceptualization);
• active experimentation (Active Experimentation).

English psychologists P. Honey and A. Mumford (P. Honey, A. Mumford) described different learning styles, and also developed a test to identify the preferred learning style (Honey Mumford Preferred Learning Style Test).

We have identified the following four learning styles:

• "activists" - independent trial and error: actively do new and new,
• "thinkers" - come up with your own before doing it: a measured detached analysis of a lot of information,
• "theorists" - logically structure what is happening: the creation of a sequence of goals and algorithms,
• pragmatists - try new ideas to solve real tasks: quick practical use.

Activist loves to learn something new, get new experience, he wants to experience everything himself and participate in everything himself. He likes to be in the center of events and attention, and he prefers to take active position rather than being a bystander. Problems are solved in a hurry.

Thinker prefers to first observe, reflect, understand the new to the end, and only then act. He tends to re-analyze what he has seen, experienced and experienced. Likes to find his own solution, does not like to be rushed, and prefers to have a margin of time to find a solution in his own time.

Theorist developed logical thinking and methodicalness are inherent, he prefers to move step by step towards solving the problem, asks many questions. He is characterized by a certain detachment and an analytical mindset. He loves tasks that require intellectual effort, distrustful of intuition and non-standard thinking, preferring the construction of models and systems. Step by step approaching the solution of the problem.

pragmatics he does not need a theory, he only needs a solution suitable for the current problem. The pragmatist seeks to find practical solutions, try everything quickly and move on to action. Not inclined to delve into theory. He likes to experiment, look for new ideas that can be immediately tested in real conditions. He acts quickly and confidently, approaches everything in a businesslike manner, down to earth and takes on the solution of emerging problems with passion.

It should be noted that people do not choose on a conscious level from which stage to start. They are hostages of their approach (behavior model).

In order to determine what type a person belongs to, E. Cameron and M. Green propose to answer the following question:

“If you were writing a book about change and wanted to convey as much knowledge as possible to future readers, you would need:

• conduct an experiment (activist);
• a sufficient number of questions for reflection (thinker);
• scrutinize various models (theorists);
• illustrate your thoughts with examples and include useful tools, techniques and applications (pragmatist)".

Below is roughly one of the most common interactive lesson structures built according to Kolb's principles:

1. Motivation and announcement new topic– 10% of the total lesson duration;
2. Consolidation (repetition) of what has been passed - 20% of the time of the total duration of the lesson;
3. Learning new material - 50% of the time of the total lesson duration;
4. Evaluation - 10% of the total lesson duration;
5. Summing up the lesson (debriefing, reflection) - 10% of the total lesson duration.

The time distribution in this scheme can be considered conditional, the teacher can, at his own discretion and depending on the characteristics of the lesson, extend or shorten certain stages of the lesson, however, it is desirable that all the listed qualitative stages of the lesson be preserved. Let us explain each qualitative stage of the lesson in more detail:

Motivation – First stage lesson, designed to focus students' attention on the material being studied, to interest them, to show the need or benefit of studying the material. The efficiency of mastering educational material by students largely depends on motivation.

Anchoring – milestone lesson, not only increasing the efficiency of mastering the material as a whole, the interest of students, but also forming in the minds of students a consistent logical structure of knowledge and methods used in this subject, and not a scattered scattering of information.

Study of the main material- the main target stage of the lesson, in which students directly receive new knowledge. At this stage, as mentioned above, the teacher should select tasks, during which students receive necessary knowledge, skills. When selecting assignments, it is also advisable for the teacher to remember the Chinese proverb: "I hear and forget, I see and remember, I do and understand."

Evaluation- an important stimulating component of the lesson. Evaluation should be flexible, visible, unbiased and fair. Only in this case it will act as a stimulant, otherwise it can serve as the main reason for rejection of the subject and a drop in interest, so here you need to be especially careful, apply the methods of collective assessment, self-assessment, team assessment, etc. The most common method of assessment in interactive lessons - scoring and team assessment.

Debriefing- Summing up the lesson. The final stage a lesson in which the teacher usually asks what was effective in the lesson, what was not, collects wishes, comments, and as a result summarizes what has been covered and encourages further independent and deeper study of the material.

The best practices of IT management recommended by the ITIL ® library are based (along with other, no less ingenious) ideas that were expressed by Dr. Edward Deming, a world-famous American scientist and consultant on quality management theory. In particular, ITIL uses the idea of ​​Deming Cycle (Deming cycle) and the ideas laid down in Total Quality Management (TQM, Integrated Quality Management), whose father is Edward Deming.

short biography Edward Deming is listed below (according to www.12manage.com):

• William Edwards Deming (William Edwards Deming), better known as Edward Deming, years of life -
• Edward Deming was an American statistician. He is associated with the rise of Japan as a manufacturing nation and with the invention of Total Quality Management (TQM). Deming traveled to Japan immediately after World War II to help conduct a census of Japan.
• While he was there, he taught "statistical process control" to Japanese engineers, a set of techniques that allowed them to produce high quality goods without expensive machinery.
• In 1960 he was awarded a medal by the Japanese emperor for his services to Japan's industry.
• Deming returned to the US and was unknown for several more years until the publication of his book "Out of the crisis" in 1982. In this book, Deming outlined 14 points that, in his opinion, would save the US from industrial doom.
• The Fourteen Points of Management by Dr. Edwards Deming represent the essence of TQM to many.

My small note does not claim to be a global study of the legacy of Dr. Deming, I will just try to consider some of his ideas and their implementation in ITIL®. Consider the Deming Cycle and some of his famous Fourteen Points of Management formulated in TQM.

Deming cycle (PDCA cycle)

So, consider the Deming cycle or the PDCA cycle. The ITIL® v3 glossary defines:

Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle (Continual Service Improvement ITIL® v3 book) - Four steps of the process management cycle developed by Edward Deming. Plan-Do-Check-Act is also called Deming Cycle:

PLAN: Planning or revision of processes supporting IT services

DO: Implementation of PLAN and process management

CHECK: Measuring processes and IT services, comparing against goals and getting reports

ACT: PLAN and change implementation to improve processes

The PDCA cycle is a simple and intuitive quality management model. According to this model, to provide an appropriate level of quality, the following steps should be continuously repeated:

planning: what needs to be done, when it needs to be done, who should do it, how it should be done and by what means

execution: execution of planned work

verification: it is determined whether the performance of the work has given the expected result

action: plans are adjusted based on the information obtained during the verification stage, and the necessary changes are made.

Quality assurance means that improvements resulting from quality management are maintained continuously. These provisions are illustrated by a simple diagram: the Deming cycle is shown as a wheel that rolls uphill in the direction of increasing quality, the wheel is supported by a quality assurance system that does not allow quality (the wheel) to slide back.

Deming Cycle (PDCA) and ITIL®

ITIL® says that the application of the Deming cycle allows you to improve the quality of management processes and services provided, ensuring the achievement of stable results of operations that comply with established norms and requirements, while rationally spending resources.

The Deming Cycle underlies many of the process and service quality improvement schemes in ITIL v.3, notably The 7-Step Improvement Process in the book Continual Service Improvement

Total Quality Management (Comprehensive Quality Management) Dr. Deming

Philosophy of total quality management. The main idea of ​​TQM is that the company should work not only on product quality, but also on the quality of work in general, including the work of staff. Constant parallel improvement of these three components: 1) product quality, 2) quality of organization of processes, 3) the level of personnel qualification allows to achieve faster and effective development business. Quality is determined by such categories as: 1) the degree of implementation of customer requirements, 2) growth financial indicators company 3) and increase the satisfaction of employees of the company with their work.

The principle of operation of TQM can be compared to holding the ball on an inclined plane. In order for the ball not to roll, it must either be propped up from below or pulled from above. TQM includes two mechanisms: Quality Assurance (QA) - quality control and Quality Improvements (QI) - quality improvement. The first - quality control - maintains the required level of quality and consists in the provision by the company of certain guarantees that give the client confidence in the quality of this product or service. The second - quality improvement - suggests that the level of quality must not only be maintained, but also increased, respectively raising the level of guarantees. Two mechanisms: quality control and quality improvement - allow you to "keep the ball in the game", that is, constantly improve and develop the business.

The ITIL v3 glossary defines TQM as follows:

Total Quality Management (TQM, Total Quality Management, Continual Service Improvement ITIL® v3 book) - A continuous improvement management methodology using the Quality Management System. TQM defines a culture of involving all people in an organization in a process of continuous measurement and improvement.

Quality Management System (QMS, Quality Management System, Continual Service Improvement ITIL® v3 book) - A set of processes responsible for ensuring that an organization performs quality that is consistent with business objectives or service levels.

ITIL®, by analogy with TQM, says that service management is based on the preparation and planning of effective and rational use four Ps: People, Processes, Products (services, technology and tools) and Partners (suppliers, manufacturers and sellers), which is illustrated by the following picture:

Ideas 14 points of TQM and ITIL® management

In reviewing the ideas from the 14 Management Points, we will not dwell on all the points, but only those that I feel are of interest when considering content/use/implementation of ITIL®. Those wishing to fully familiarize themselves with all 14 points of TQM management, I refer to chapter 3 of Henry R. Neave's book "Doctor Deming's Space", which in the most understandable and accessible form (and this is not only my point of view) gives them detailed description and interpretation.

So let's get started:

Item 1: Constancy of Purpose

Set a goal for yourself and be unfailingly firm and consistent in achieving your goal. continuous improvement products and services

Allocate resources to meet long-term goals and needs, not just short-term profitability

The entire ITIL® philosophy is in line with this provision. Not to snatch a momentary piece from the customer, but using a service approach, to establish long-term and mutually beneficial relationships with him through a strategy, the formation of a portfolio of services, which is based on high-quality services that are of value to this customer.

Item 3: Stop Dependence on Mass Inspections

Eliminate the need for mass checks and inspections as a way to achieve quality

Quality must be designed and built into processes

Prevent defects, don't try to find and fix them after they happen

Item 5: Improve every process

• Improve constantly, today and always, all processes of planning, production and delivery of services
• Constantly look for problems in order to improve all activities, increasing quality and productivity, and thereby reducing costs
• Strive to make an unstable process stable, a stable but inefficient process efficient, an efficient process even more efficient
• Remember - if you don't find the problem, the problem will find you.

ITIL® v3 has expanded the scope of management areas to include management process quality issues. Using the process maturity model from COBIT, you can determine the current level of management process maturity, compare it with the target (if it is defined) and take actions to improve the quality of processes and deliverables. services. ITIL® addresses the concept of proactive action to prevent incidents and problems that could reduce the quality of services provided.

Item 6: Put into Practice Training and Retraining of Personnel

Train all employees, including supervisors and managers, in order to better use the capabilities of each of them

Training is as much a part of the workflow as production

Rooting and dissemination of improvements is the result of learning

The cost of training is negligible compared to the benefits that result from the fact that this employee does his job correctly and with the best benefit for the company.

Unfortunately, this is a position that is hardly understood and accepted in Russia. Based on the 4P principle, considered in ITIL® v3, it must be said that work with personnel is one of the main components of high-quality service delivery. When implementing ITIL® approaches in specific projects, it is absolutely essential.

Item 9: Break Barriers

Break down barriers between divisions, services, departments

People from different functional departments must work in teams in order to troubleshoot problems that may arise with products or services.

This is especially true for IT operating on the principles of a real-time service organization. It is the cross-functional approach, the organization of management processes described in ITIL®, that helps to solve this problem. Establishing communication between IT departments is one of the most important and difficult tasks facing IT managers.

Item 14: Top Management Commitment

Top management should lead and lead the whole company energetically to improve the quality of every activity in the company: provide the necessary support, training, allocation of funds

The management of the company should follow in its own practice the same principles that it preaches.

The management of the company must agree that it must also learn a lot and be ready to learn.

A critical point that goes beyond the scope of ITIL®, but often tragically influencing the decision to implement / use / improve an IT management system based on ITIL® principles. Often this issue is closely linked to the issue of cost justification (see the article How do I justify IT governance improvements?). ITIL® itself says that such commitment should be and considers commitment senior management as one of the critical success factors.

conclusions

Thus, we see that the ideas contained in ITIL® are based on the most advanced management principles and give us A complex approach to solve one of the main tasks facing IT - to improve the quality of services provided.

American scientist William Edward Deming was an American statistician. He is associated with the rise of Japan as a manufacturing nation and with the invention of TQM.( Total Quality Management (TQM) . Deming traveled to Japan immediately after World War II to help conduct a census of Japan. While he was there, he taught "statistical process control" to Japanese engineers, a set of techniques that allowed them to produce high quality goods without expensive machinery.

Deming came to the conclusion that quality can be controlled and, therefore, it can be managed (and these words are not synonymous).

Comparing in a certain way selected quality indicators with their planned values, the manufacturer discovers a certain discrepancy. Then he looks for the cause of this discrepancy, makes some kind of impact on the process (corrects the process), again compares the values ​​of the indicators with the planned ones, etc. This cycle is carried out quality control.

The objects of product quality management are all elements that form quality loop. Under quality loop in accordance with international ISO standards, they understand a product life cycle closed in the form of a ring (Figure 1), which includes, to one degree or another, the main stages life cycle products.

Picture 1 - Appearance quality loops

Here MTS - logistics

With a quality loop the relationship between the manufacturer of products and the consumer and with all objects that provide a solution to the problems of product quality management is carried out.

Product quality management is carried out cyclically and goes through certain stages, called the Deming cycle. The implementation of such a cycle is called turnover of the Deming cycle.

The concept of the Deming cycle is not limited to product quality management, but is also related to any managerial and household activities.

The sequence of stages of the Deming cycle is shown in Figure 2 and includes 4 stages:

planning (PLAN)- setting goals and actions necessary for their achievement, allocation of resources;

implementation (implementation) (DO)– execution of the planned work;

control (check) (CHECK)– collection of information on the progress of work;

impact management (correction, adjustment) (ACTION)– taking measures to eliminate deviations found at the previous stage.

Figure 2 - Appearance of the Deming cycle

This so-called pdca- Deming cycle. It is usually present when developing and running processes. The purpose of the actions in this cycle is to bring some object into the required state. The cycle is repeated many times.

If PLAN (planning) is replaced by STANDARD (standard), then another kind of Deming cycle is formed - sdca- Deming cycle.

Lecture 2. Classification of quality indicators

____________________________________________________________________

Issues under study:

The concept of a quality indicator.

Single, complex, basic and integral indicators.

The PDCA Deming Cycle is a continuous cycle of activities aimed at improving business processes and products, optimizing procedures, and improving facilities. With the help of such a universal tool as the Deming management cycle, you can achieve quality improvement in any area of ​​​​business.

The Deming cycle or the PDCA cycle is an algorithm of leader actions that includes 4 stages. The deming cycle consists of the following steps

• Plan - Plan
• Do-Do
• Check - Check
• Act - Change/Correct

Let's see how the Deming cycle looks like an example. First, set goals in numbers (plan), then take actions (do) that will lead to these goals. Then check the results (check) and make changes (act). And so on in a circle until you come to the numbers that you planned.

Let us examine in more detail the stages of the Deming cycle. It includes 4 phases.

Planning

At this stage, the current situation is analyzed, goals are set, ways to achieve them are developed, a list of measures and actions is compiled, the procedure for their implementation, quantitative and qualitative indicators are signed, and responsibility is distributed.

Implementation

When all the indicators are outlined, and the roles are assigned, the stage of implementing measures to achieve the planned results begins. The mode of action of the performers in this phase is rather approbation and testing, rather than the final version of the execution of the plan.

Control, verification

According to the reporting system, there is a permanent control over the execution of daily indicators.

Final implementation

This step symbolizes the transition to the working phase using proven methods.

The Deming cycle helps to set up the most effective control over the work of managers. Indeed, in order to grow revenue, it is important to test new approaches, analyze the results and work on bugs.

You should use the Deming cycle when making any decisions: both to test new ideas and improve existing techniques/products/tools.

With the help of constant checks before, during and after, weak points of processes, procedures, instructions, management, education of responsibility for quality in the enterprise are revealed. PDCA serves precisely to identify the causes of failures and support the entire process up to the elimination of defects.

In practice, the Deming cycle should be actively used in the process of holding planning meetings or meetings with managers.

What is SMART

It is very important to understand that when working on the Deming cycle algorithm, you must operate with extremely clear goals. Otherwise, you will have to move blindly, and any intuitive correction can lead to unpredictable results.
The most powerful tool for formatting business goals is SMART technology. Let's talk about 5 criteria encrypted in the name of the methodology and their features.

concreteness

This is, in fact, the most important "aggregate" criterion, which implies a clear statement of purpose. Clarity of purpose is determined by 3 parameters.

• What needs to be done
• When should be done
• In what quantitative and qualitative indicators will this be expressed

When you have an understanding on each of these 3 points, then there is no room for a free interpretation of the tasks set.

measurability

How will you know that the goal has been achieved? Or that you are at least on the right track? To do this, you need to calculate indicators that will directly correlate with the goal. Simply put, if you complete them, you will consistently move forward in the right direction. In sales, these indicators include the numbers of daily activity of employees: calls, meetings, presentations, sent commercial offers, issued invoices, etc.

Reachability

Achievement of the goal by performers of different levels is perceived in their own way. Therefore, this criterion must be individually formatted for each type of participant. For ordinary sellers, achievability lies in strict adherence to the technology of the transaction.

Relevance

One should always ask the question: “How true is the goal? Does it lead to the prosperity of the company? Or can serious complications arise upon its achievement? Even when a business is striving for a seemingly completely organic goal - increasing turnover, one should always keep in mind the "price" and the consequences of the rapid development of the company. Check your goals for truth.

Limited time

This is a simple but arguably critical parameter. In business, everything has a deadline and a deadline. The main thing that needs to be clearly monitored is the realism of the deadlines. You may well be too optimistic or, conversely, pessimistic in your assessments.
Remember, SMART is the foundation that will enable you to effectively apply the Deming Cycle.

How to set a goal and plan for its implementation

In business, it is critical to start applying the deming principle within the business unit. The cycle starts with the planning phase. Perhaps this is the most difficult stage for PDCA. She assumes comprehensive analysis situations. And if you make a mistake at this stage, the consequences can be devastating. We offer several tools that will allow you to set an adequate goal and decompose it into small daily actions.

Stage 1 - set an adequate goal

The goal in business is profit. Not income, not revenue, namely profit. Profit is just a number. The number on which everything depends. Therefore, when deciding on it and analyzing the available data, pass them through the filters of internal and external factors.

• Sources of income
• Marginality of products
• Marketing effect
• Reducing planned figures by an amount from random large orders
• seasonality
• Economic situation, exchange rates and external sanctions

Step 2 - Making the Goal Realistic

To make the goal as realistic as possible, you should apply SMART technology to it. This tool offers to evaluate the goal according to 5 criteria.

• S (specific) - specific: the figure of the planned profit, taking into account the listed factors.
• M (measurable) - measurable: the presence of clear quantitative indicators, the implementation of which will give the planned result
• A (achievable) - achievable: availability of resources and skills to meet these indicators
• R (relevant) - relevant: checking the goal for truth. True, when it comes to planned profit and its size is formulated adequately, the truth of such a goal is beyond doubt.
• T - timebound - limited in time: when planning a profit, at least do it for 1 year. But it would be better if you had strategic plans for 3.5 and 10 years.

Stage 3 - Making the goal achievable

The feasibility and attainability of the goal is realized through decomposition. Let's give a simple example of profit decomposition.

1. We determine the amount of revenue by the share of profit in it.
2. We count the number of transactions, taking into account the average check.
3. Find the number of leads by conversion rate in the funnel.
4. We calculate the number of daily actions required to process conversion leads between stages.
5. We determine the labor standards and the required number of employees.

Conducting Effective Deming Cycle Meetings

The Deming cycle is easiest to implement if you constantly keep your finger on the “pulse” of sales. This is possible if the company has adopted and operates a system of weekly and daily meetings and planning meetings, which allows you to quickly influence the situation.

weekly meetings

Timing - 1 - 1.5 hours. The main task is to control the results of the week, support the "combat" mood of the staff and announce plans for each seller.

Thematic blocks of weekly meetings

1. Work on the bugs. Each seller receives feedback and clear recommendations regarding their work. All advice is based directly on the failure cases from the past week.

2. Announcement of plans for the week according to the pipeline: tasks for transactions and payments with specific dates. The head of the department is guided by the reports provided by the managers in the form of a “plan for the week”.

3. Discussion of the intermediate results of competitions among managers or summing up their results with awarding the distinguished ones.

4. Performance analysis key indicators efficiency - : calls, meetings, presentations.

5. Training specific employees or groups in accordance with their "problem" areas.

Daily meetings

Timing - 1 time per day for 30 minutes. The main benefit of them is the effect of the “push” function, when you influence the situation on a daily basis and can increase the conversion. The purpose of the meeting is to sum up the results of the previous day, approve the plan for the current day and cheer up the employees.

Perhaps someone thinks that daily meetings for certain areas of business are a waste of time and an unaffordable luxury. Especially when it comes to segments: B2B, B2P, B2G. If you have long deals, then discuss with managers not payment plans, but the movement through the stages of the sales business process.

Thematic blocks of daily meetings

• Availability control, discussion and approval of the plan for the day.
• Summarizing the results of the past day;
• Analysis of the successes and failures of the previous day;
• KPI discussion.

Five minutes

Timing - 3 times a day for 5 minutes with individual employees. Five minutes are necessary for the prompt correction of the result of the day. As a rule, they are held every three hours.

Principles for Effective Deming Cycle Meetings

1. Meetings should not be "get-togethers" with colleagues. They need to be carried out quickly and consider all issues on the merits.

2. It is important to gather all employees together. Human psychology is at work here - he works better if others know about his successes and failures. This encourages him to take action.

3. Meetings should be held once a day and 2-3 more times to gather managers to quickly discuss milestones. These should be short five-minute sessions - preferably at 11.00, 14.00, 16.00. Then the manager will be able to correct the actions of managers and fulfill the daily sales plan.

For example, a manager claims that a client cannot pay for services or goods because his accountant is ill. The manager can prompt and direct the employee: "Find out who works for them instead of an accountant, who performs his duties." Or "the client does not pick up the phone" - "write an SMS or call from another number." This is how the Deming cycle works - we did it, it didn’t work out, we correct the actions, we move on.

Imagine two competing companies. In one of them, the leader meets with managers every day, the other - once a week. Think about which one will be more successful: the one in which, as a result of daily discussions, the strategy of actions was changed 21 times in a month, or the one in which it was changed only 4 times?

4. At the meeting, it is important to sum up the intermediate results on the implementation of the sales plan, discuss further steps, set the mood for the whole working day, and work on the mistakes. That is, go through each stage of the Deming cycle.

5. It is worth defining a clear procedure for holding meetings:

• Fact for yesterday (for each employee and department);
• Plan for today (for each employee and department);
• What to do to repeat the success or not to repeat the action associated with the failure;
• Results on intermediate performance indicators in the context of the implementation of the monthly plan.

6. At meetings, the manager should write down everything that employees say: when and how much the client will pay, how many calls, meetings have already been made, what results, at what stages of negotiations are different transactions. For strict accounting, it is necessary to have a sheet with records from the last meeting - then the result will be visible.

They have truly irreplaceable properties that will benefit sales.

General chats

Create general chats to motivate salespeople and control the execution of the daily plan. Sometimes the team is so “started up” that the correspondence with the discussion of successes and plans continues after the working day until the night.

Geolocation

Messengers allow you to send a map element indicating the location of a person. This takes on a special meaning in terms of interaction with Russian sellers and their "Russian" mentality. Periodically request the location of an employee when he went to a meeting. Refusal to send her can be regarded as a riot on the ship and take appropriate measures. In addition, if you yourself are at meetings, then you can so easily control the appearance of subordinates in the office.

To do this, ask the candidate the following questions:

• How often does he have a meeting with managers?
• What does he discuss?
• Why is he holding a meeting?
• What result does he expect from each meeting?
• What does he do with the results of the meeting?

Compare his answers with those we have described above and accept the right decision whether the candidate suits you or not. If your manager starts using the Deming cycle in his work, then in just a few weeks you will see how revenue began to grow.

What is the PDCA cycle?

PDCA is a methodology that values ​​a company's culture of continuous improvement. It is a type of interactive management method used to both control and continuously improve products, services and processes in general.

Why use? Those who wish to improve the management of their company on an ongoing basis need to learn the PDCA methodology - Plan, Do, Check, Act as soon as possible. It consists of four stages and allows you to constantly improve your company.

How to do? The practical application of this methodology can be done in any company using the PDCA Cycle Worksheet. Below we will see 4 steps and how this application should be.

How to do PDCA

Before diving into the PDCA cycle, you need to choose one of the company's foundational processes. Any: the process of selling, the production of a product, the provision of a service, financial closure, and finally, the user himself must choose what initially requires the most attention.

Don't bother making a careful choice, because the idea of ​​the PDCA methodology should be incorporated into the corporate culture forever. In other words, in the end, all processes will eventually be considered.

Each process has bottlenecks, and it is on them that the loop acts. What bottleneck do you think hinders the selected process the most? Use indicators to measure waste at each step of the process. The measurement can be done in several ways:

a) conversion losses

It is very common to analyze the effectiveness of the negotiation and sales process, for example, by converting between stages. The contact, or leader, as some companies like to call it, goes through several stages until a contract is awarded. Where is the biggest loss? The sales process can consist of Call > Meeting > Offer > Contract. If the majority potential clients drop the offer step, it's likely to have more important bottlenecks.

b) Waste of time

Some processes do not have conversion between stages, such as closing accounting. However, these are processes that must meet a deadline in the monthly or yearly schedule of companies. In this activity, you can identify bottlenecks by the duration of each step. For example, it is very common to realize that the finance team spends a lot of time identifying accounts in other areas when it comes to bank reconciliations. In this case, the PDCA cycle can ideally act as a bottleneck for communication between areas.

c) loss due to waste

In processes related to the production of products, efficiency is usually measured by the waste generated at each stage. Measuring the steps that generate the most losses in that direction, and acting on the bottlenecks that lead to this, is another hypothesis for using the PDCA cycle.

Stages of the PDCA cycle

Having passed this preliminary stage, we have actually entered a cycle. It consists of four steps. It:

1. Planning - from the English "Plan"

The first step in the PDCA cycle is to draw up plans to eliminate bottlenecks, which are eliminated as expected in terms of the goals of the organization and the process under consideration.

When expectations are set early in the management process, the consistency, consistency, and accuracy of the implementation of the set of elements is itself objective. It's interesting to start small and monitor to test for effects.

At this stage, you can identify changes in how things are done, involving more or fewer people, and using supporting tools. It's important to think about the small tests that can be done from these resolutions before looking at big changes in the company as a whole.

2. Performance - from English "Do"

In fact, this is the phase that covers most of the “hands-on-hands” of the PDCA methodology. In which all - and each - of the plans identified in the first stage must be carried out. Data collection should also be done at this stage - although this information is only used in later stages.

3. Confirmation - from the English "Check"

Now is the time to take a deep dive and analyze the data collected in Do. Based on this, a fairly accurate comparison can be made of what was received and what was expected at the planning stage. Differences must be taken into account - whether positive or negative, in order to critically analyze the entire process.

4. Action - from the English "Act"

In the last step of the PDCA method, all possible measures will be taken to correct the route and possible distortions that have deviated from the expected results in order to determine the causes.

If there is nothing to improve, the methodology can be a little more detailed in order to put into practice possible improvements at the time of repeating one of the stages.

There are usually two possible outcomes in the Act step. First, it must be acknowledged that the cycle worked in terms of eliminating bottlenecks. Therefore, the proposed changes must be implemented and incorporated into the culture of the company. The cycle must be done again, looking at other processes or bottlenecks.

The second possible outcome is the realization that the proposed plans have not eliminated the perceived bottlenecks, probably due to errors in diagnostics. In this case, the cycle must be repeated, focusing on the same process or bottleneck. If the responsible team does not feel that the process is mature enough.

PDCA Cycle Cycle

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