When studying management as a science, the key question is “What is management?” - is perfectly legal.
The word "management" in the form in which it exists in modern English, arose in the time of William Shakespeare. Researchers note that this term has Latin, Italian and French roots.
The word "management" comes from the Latin manus (having several meanings), which means not only "hand", but also power, and "sphere of authority".
The Italian word manneggiare originated in the Middle Ages in the management of property and commercial enterprises; around the same period, the French manegerie also came into use.
The English word manege first appeared in 1561, the word manager in 1588, and the word management in 1589, all of which originally referred to the peculiarities of life in the countryside.
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of English language the word management was first used in its modern sense in 1670 and has since meant "management commercial affairs" as opposed to the former meaning, implying the ability to "wield" a sword or control a horse.
The practice of the phenomenon that we today call "management" arose a very long time ago, and was considered a divine gift. So the Apostle Paul in his "First Epistle to the Corinthians" wrote that the Lord gave others gifts of healing, control, knowledge of different languages. Thus, management is put on a par with the gift of healing and the ability to speak tongues. The practice of management arose a long time ago, but the science of management, exactly what we call "management", arose recently.
As already pointed out, the practice of managing an organization is as old as the organization itself. Historically, the management of organizations from century to century has become more and more clear and complex, and the organizations themselves are becoming stronger and more stable. But, as they say, even in Greek grammar there are exceptions. There are exceptions here too. The most striking example in this regard are theological organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church, whose administration has not changed for thousands of years.
Let's touch on the main milestones in the development of management from practice to science.
The first contribution to its development was probably made by the Sumerians, who about 7 thousand years ago (5000 BC) began to record facts in writing. The second step was taken a thousand years later (in 4000 BC) when the Egyptians recognized the need for planning, organization and control. The next step was taken another thousand years later, when, again, the Egyptians recognized the need for "fair play" and confidential conversations - "lighten your soul." A thousand years later (2000 BC), the Egyptians recognized the need for written requests and the use of the recommendations of the “headquarters” (the creation of the headquarters itself in the modern sense of the word belongs to Alexander the Great). 200 years later, the Babylonian king Hammurabi recognized the need to use witnesses, written documents for control, established a minimum wage, and also recognized the shifting of responsibility as unacceptable.
In 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar recognized the need to control production and stimulate labor through wages.
Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylonia (605-562 BC) in 587 (according to other sources, 586) destroyed the rebellious Jerusalem, liquidated the Kingdom of Judah and took a large number of the inhabitants of Judea into captivity. Under him, the so-called Tower of Babel and hanging gardens were built.
In 500 BC Mencius proclaimed the need for standards and systems; at the same time, the Chinese recognized the need for specialization.
In 400, Socrates expressed the idea of the universality of management, and the ancient Greek writer and historian Xenophon (his main work "Greek History" in 7 volumes) defined management as a special kind of art. At the same time, at the direction of the Persian king Cyrus, studies of motivation were carried out.
The study of scientific methods of labor and working rhythm was first taken up by the Greeks in 350 BC.
The contribution of Jesus Christ to management was the recognition of unity of command (to Caesar - Caesar's) and the analysis human relations(one of them Golden Rule: Don't do to others what you don't want for yourself.
The Roman emperor Diocletian (who introduced unlimited imperial power in Rome in the 3rd century) came up with the idea of delegating powers. Delegation is the transfer of tasks and powers to a recipient who assumes responsibility for them.
In 900, Alfarabi, who was respectfully called the Second (First Aristotle), formulated the requirements for the leader, and the Persian philosopher Ghazali in 1100 formulated the requirements for the manager.
In 1340, the Genoese mathematician Pacioli proposed double bookkeeping. In 1395, di Marco proposed to take into account the costs of production. In 1410, the Soranso brothers proposed the use of income journals and ledgers.
The next step in the development of management was made by the Venetians in 1436. From that time, checks began to be used for control, inventory numbers were assigned, and controlled inventory and cost; at the same time they began to use the conveyor method.
A significant contribution to the development of managerial thought was made by the Italian statesman Machiavelli (1469-1527). In particular, he said: “A ruler’s mind is first of all judged by what kind of people he brings closer to himself; if these are devoted and capable people, then you can always be sure of his wisdom, for he was able to recognize abilities and retain their devotion.
Machiavelli also noted: “There is one unmistakable way to find out what an assistant is worth. If an assistant cares more about himself than about the state, and in every business seeks his own benefits, he will never be a good servant of the sovereign.
Scientific management appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the American Joseph Wharton developed his first systematic course for teaching in college. But management received wide recognition only in 1911 in connection with the publication of the book "Principles of Scientific Management" by Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) and the organization of the first scientific conference on management by H. Person. Taylor's system, the so-called "scientific sweat-squeezing system," was admired by Lenin. This is how the school of scientific management arose.
F. Taylor suggested using a system of material incentives, the main of which was a reward, which "in order for it to have the proper effect, must follow very quickly the performance of the work itself." Thus, F.Taylor used the old principle: who gives at once, he gives twice.
To keep workers in constant expectation of reward, Taylor proposed progressive wages.
Taylorism was based on such principles as: payment to a person, not to a place; setting prices based on accurate knowledge, not guesswork; uniformity of prices. Thanks to this, labor productivity increased, goods became cheaper, workers received higher wages, they became interested in intensive work, cooperation with entrepreneurs, etc.
Taylor did not reduce the award itself only to cash payments, but considered it quite widely. He attributed to it various kinds of social concessions on the part of entrepreneurs - the organization of workers' canteens, kindergartens, evening courses, etc. All this was considered "a means for creating more skillful and intelligent workers", a means that arouses in the workers "a good feeling towards the owners."
Taylor saw workers not as people, not as individuals, but as the most efficient means of achieving their goals. Using observations, measurements, analysis, he divided the work into the simplest specific tasks, selected the feasible tasks for workers in accordance with their abilities, and organized the schedule and sequence of operations as efficiently as possible.
One of the prominent followers of Taylor was G. Emerson (1853-1931), who developed an integrated, systematic approach to the organization of management. His book The Twelve Principles of Productivity is widely known. These are the principles:
Precisely set goals;
Common sense;
Competent advice;
Discipline;
Fair treatment of staff;
Operational, reliable, complete, accurate, and permanent accounting;
dispatching;
Norms and schedule;
Normalization of conditions;
Written standard instructions;
Remuneration for productive work.
The Russians have made a certain contribution to the treasury of world management ideas. The first and original contribution of Russia to management was the widely known Domostroy, which has not lost (for some) its significance even today. For its time, it was a classic example of management.
V.I. Lenin can also be attributed to management theorists in his work “Immediate Tasks Soviet power»He offers the fundamental principles of management: unity of command, discipline, power and responsibility, subordination of private interests to common ones, centralization, interest in work (motivation).
Speaking about the contribution of the Russians, one must remember Alexander Kapitonovich Gastev, Kerzhentsev and I. Ansoff. A. Gastev was a poet and scientist, organizer of the Central Institute of Labor (1920). He left the journalistic work "How to work" (1921) and other works on rational organization culture of work, put forward the concept of "narrow base", "bottleneck", from the "joining" of which the manager must begin any improvement in production.
The second school is considered to be the administrative or classical school (1920-1950). Creator classical school G. Fayol is considered, whose main idea is the rational construction of an organization as a hierarchical structure. It is necessary, the author believed, a clear definition of the following management functions:
Technical, related to the implementation of the technological process;
Commercial (purchase of raw materials and materials, sale of finished products);
Financial (search Money and their effective use).
Protective (protection of property and personality);
Accounting (inventory, accounting, collection of statistical data);
Administrative (impact on employees).
Summarizing his observations, G. Fayol formulated the basic principles of administrative management.
Power is inseparable from responsibility.
Division of labor with specialization (however, this process has a limit beyond which efficiency drops sharply).
unity and centralization. Unity of leadership on the principle of "one leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal."
Unity of administrative functions.
Discipline, obligatory for all and involving mutual respect of leaders and subordinates.
Subordination of individual interests to the common ones.
Fairness, ensured by the dedication of the staff and the objectivity of remuneration.
Hierarchy, which implies the minimization of managerial steps and the usefulness of horizontal links.
The order, which is based on the principle "to each his place and each in his place."
The constancy of the staff, because the turnover is a consequence of poor management.
An initiative that requires the leader to fully encourage and suppress his own vanity.
Corporate spirit, i.e. community of interests of workers and collectivism in work.
Reward.
Already in the 30s of the 20th century, large-scale machine production brought the intensity of the use of human physical capabilities to the limit. The time has come to activate the intellectual resources of the individual. Since mental activity is more difficult to manage than physical. It was necessary to look for new approaches to help "wake up" people. This step was taken by the so-called school of human relations (1950 to the present). Follet (1880-1949) stood at its origins. The followers of this school proceeded from the fact that the immediate motives of people's activities are only partially the needs satisfied with the help of money. With a favorable moral and mental climate, people are very responsive to care from the management, they are satisfied with their position, and if they are given the appropriate conditions, they will automatically work more productively.
The theory of human relations was supplemented by the behavioral concept, the most prominent proponent of which was Douglas MacGregor. Supporters of the concept set themselves the goal of helping people to fully reveal their hidden abilities and thereby increase labor productivity. To reveal the hidden abilities of a person, according to the supporters of the concept, it is possible by applying the achievements of the sciences of human behavior, primarily psychology.
After the widespread introduction of computers, the quantitative theory of control arose. Its adherents, on the basis of specific given values of variables, developed models various situations: mathematically described them, looked for internal relationships and determined the ways of optimal solution of the problem. Sometimes this approach is called quantitative. This is the so-called school of management science. A feature of the scientific management school is that they believe that logistical rewards do not necessarily lead to increased motivation.
In 1964 in the USA, B. Henderson created an international consulting company called the Boston Consulting Group (BCG). Over the past 30-35 years, she has played a leading role in creating the theory of business strategy. She put forward the concept of the BCG matrix (growth/market share matrix) and the experience curve. In addition, BCG has developed a theory of competition based on time and customer retention. The ideas put forward by the BCG have increased the store of useful knowledge about business more than the work of any management school.
The next breakthrough in the science of management is associated with the work of Henri Fayol (1841-1925). For 30 years, Fayol headed a major French steel and mining company. He took it on the verge of bankruptcy, and left it one of the most powerful French concerns. The combination of creative thought with vast practical experience and the possibilities of experiment in the field of organization management has become a significant milestone in the development of managerial thought.
Fayol in his works was not limited to the framework of production, but extended his ideas to any organization that is the object of management (15).
Fayol gave a clear definition of the concept of "management". He said that to manage means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting the maximum opportunities from all the resources at its disposal.
He identified 6 areas of enterprise activity that need to be managed ((15), (1)):
technical (technological);
2. commercial (purchase, sale and exchange);
3. financial (search for capital and its effective use);
4. protective (protection of property and personality);
5. accounting (inventory, balance sheets, costs, statistics);
6. administrative (affects only personnel, without directly affecting either materials or mechanisms).
Fayol formulated the principles of management, which he considered flexible, requiring creativity, and not absolute.
In the field of teaching the art of management, Fayol believed that for this it was far from enough to learn only the subtleties of engineering training. Need to learn professional skill to rule. Or, in modern terms, you need to learn management.
Here are the principles of organization management formulated by Fayol:
1. Power is inseparable from responsibility. Those who give orders and directives must be held accountable for the consequences that follow.
2. Division of labor with specialization. For all types of labor, both managerial and technical, a division of labor is characteristic. This allows you to produce more and better with about the same effort.
3. Unity of command. An employee must receive instructions from one superior.
Obviously, this principle contradicts Taylor's principle of multifunctional subordination. Although most likely, these principles should complement each other.
4. Discipline. By discipline, Fayol understood respect for agreements designed to ensure obedience, diligence, energy, and outward display of respect. Discipline is mandatory for both ordinary workers and managers.
5. Unity of leadership. Fayol believed that "one leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal" is needed. In other words, in each case, one head is needed, responsible for achieving the goal. Only the development of recommendations can be collective.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general ones. The interest of an employee or a group of employees cannot prevail over the interests of the case. If there are differences within the team, the leader must ensure that a unified decision is made.
7. Reward. Fayol believed that remuneration should be fair and satisfy both the employee and the employer.
8. Centralization. Efficient production is ensured by a combination of division of labor and centralized management. The degree of centralization may vary depending on the size of the organization and the specifics of the field of activity. As a rule, in small companies the degree of centralization is higher. In larger ones, centralization is somewhat weakened.
9. Hierarchy. Every organization should have a clearly defined "chain of command" from higher to lower rank. There is no need to break it unnecessarily. But if it is harmful, it is advisable to shorten it.
10. Order. Fayol believed that everything should have its place and everyone should be in their place. In other words, a clear alignment of forces and their clear interaction in the process of achieving the goal are assumed.
11. Justice. Loyalty and devotion to the cause of ordinary employees must be ensured by a kind and fair attitude on the part of management.
12. Resilience of staff. Staff turnover tends to escort insufficiently efficient operation organizations. In efficient operating organizations the composition of the staff is usually stable.
13. Initiative. The initiative contributes to a more complete implementation of employees in the activities of the organization. Fayol urges leaders to give up implementation if possible own initiative in favor of the initiative of an employee of a lower rank.
14. Corporate spirit. When managing an organization, Fayol advises against adhering to the principle of "divide and conquer." Much more appropriate, he considers the principle of collectivism in the activities of the organization, ensuring the desire of the team to achieve a common goal.
6. Mayo built his fame and reputation during an experiment conducted at a textile factory in Philadelphia in 1923-1924. Fluidity work force in the spinning section of this mill it reached 250%, while in other sections it was only 5-6%. The financial incentives offered by the efficiency experts failed to change the turnover and low productivity of the site, so the president of the firm turned to Mayo and his comrades for help.
After careful examination of the situation, Mayo determined that the working conditions of the spinner provided few opportunities for socializing with each other and that their work was not respected. Mayo felt that the solution to the problem of decreasing employee turnover lay in changing working conditions, and not in increasing remuneration for it. With the permission of the administration, he gave the spinners two 10-minute rest breaks as an experiment. The results were immediate and impressive. Labor turnover dropped sharply, worker morale improved, and output increased greatly. When the inspector subsequently decided to cancel these breaks, the situation returned to its previous state, thus proving that it was Mayo's innovation that improved the state of affairs on the site.
The spinner experiment reinforced Mayo's belief that it was important for managers to take into account the psychology of the worker, especially some of its "irrationality." He came to the following conclusion: “Until now, in social and industrial studies, it remains insufficiently realized that such small illogicalities in the mind of the “average normal” person accumulate in his actions. Perhaps they will not lead to a “breakdown” in himself, but they will cause a “breakdown” in him. labor activity».
Participating in the Hawthorne experiments in 1927-1932. at the Western Electric Company, near Chicago, E., Mayo tested his hypothesis that the rate of output is determined not by the physical abilities of the worker, but by the pressure of the group in which this worker works. Mayo proved in practice the advantages of dividing large groups of workers into small subgroups, selected according to personality traits.
The author, manager of a large manufacturing division at General Motors, describes the experience of building a cohesive team that doubled productivity and product quality and cut costs in 15 months. The conclusions are supported by examples from his activities as a coach of a hockey team, which he brought to the winners. The book continues the theme of using for business purposes the methods of training sports teams, described in the book by J. Whitmore "Coaching - a new style of management and personnel management" (M.: Finance and Statistics, 2000). For corporate management. It is recommended for teachers and students of higher education institutions when studying the courses "Organization of management" and "Management".
The most concise and accessible modern fundamental training course, which gives the basic concepts of the studied area, contains a detailed introduction to the subject, a presentation of the foundations of the theory and practice of management. In a public form, the whole complex of mechanisms and methods, elements of management activity at an enterprise, in an organization and entrepreneurial activity. It is shown how to use the principles and methods of management, form a strategy and tactics, create an organization and manage operations, solve problems that arise in the work of managers, economists and other specialists of organizations, in the activities of entrepreneurs. It is intended for students, teachers, heads of enterprises, organizations, institutions and their divisions, entrepreneurs.
Collection of articles "Owner and manager. Building efficient business", which is part of the series "Practice corporate governance", is intended to summarize the experience Russian entrepreneurs, provide answers to corporate governance issues relevant to Russian entrepreneurs. On the pages of the publication, owners and top managers Russian companies present their experience, practical experts answer questions that are important for owners and managers of medium and small companies. The first section is devoted to the consideration of trends and prospects for the development of corporate governance in Russia. The second section includes articles that consider the issues of organizing effective interaction between the owner and the hired manager, the role of the owner in the management of the company, the formation of a system of possessory control and the introduction of corporate governance practices in the company. The third section brings together articles covering the topic "from the birth of a business idea to the development of a strategy and business development", as well as...
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The publication contains chapter 25 `Corporate income tax` part two tax code Russian Federation, updated on the date of publication, guidelines on the application of Chapter 25 `Corporate Income Tax` of the second part of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the system tax accounting, recommended by the Ministry of Taxation of Russia, classification of fixed assets included in cushioning groups, as well as the form of the declaration on income tax of organizations and instructions for filling it out. The Ministry of Taxation of Russia clarified the procedure for calculating and paying advance payments to the budget for income tax in the 1st quarter of 2002 and the procedure for switching in 2002 to determining income and expenses on a cash basis. For managers and accountants of enterprises, regardless of the form of ownership, employees of tax authorities, individual entrepreneurs, students of economic faculties of universities.
The book "Fear in the work of managers" deals with a topic that excites many, but which is not customary to talk about. Because a manager must be fearless. This book is about how the job of a manager shapes fears and concerns. And how these fears, in turn, influence the choice of concept, strategic goals, culture, organizational structure, ways of motivating staff and behavior in conflicts. This is what makes the book unique. Since it was written by consultants, its language is interactive, rich in metaphors and allows not only to understand, but also to change one's idea. The book is primarily intended for entrepreneurs and managers, as well as professionals in the field of psychology and management consulting.
The book is addressed to individual entrepreneurs, small businessmen, heads of small firms. The peculiarity of the book is that its study will allow the entrepreneur to keep accounting on his own, even without special training, in other words, to save money on an accountant. The first chapter of the book is devoted theoretical aspects accounting in small business: here, in a language understandable to the "teapot", it talks about meters and objects of accounting, the features of setting up accounting processes in small business, etc. The next few chapters contain a description of software tools addressed to individual entrepreneurs.
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First arose school of scientific management(1885–1920), otherwise known as Taylorism, after its founder, Frederick Taylor.
Taylor in his management theory proceeded from the fact that the work of each individual worker should be paid according to the result, and denied the existence of antagonistic contradictions between labor and capital.
The central point in Taylor's theory was the need to rationalize production methods in the interests of increasing production efficiency and general prosperity.
Basic provisions scientific school controls:
1. The entire amount of work should be divided into small operations. For the control (reference) performance of the operation, the strongest and most qualified workers are appointed. The indicator of their production is fixed by means of timekeeping, and then it is established as a norm that is mandatory for everyone. Along with the time of performing labor operations, it is determined minimum time necessary for the inevitable production breaks and rest. Thus, the most rational way of doing the work is established.
2. The use of a labor incentive system with the use of material and moral incentives.
3. Branch managerial functions from actual work.
Weak side this school is an oversimplification of the understanding of labor motivation, insufficient knowledge of the psychology of people. Taylor argued that people need to be forced to work, they themselves want it, but at the same time, they are not willing to take responsibility, do not tolerate change and cannot be trusted.
Taylor School of Management pioneered operational planning production process.
In the years 1920-1950, arose and developed classical (administrative) school of management. Within the framework of this school, the processes of managing the organization as a whole, and not individual production operations. The founder of the administrative school of government is the Frenchman Henri Fayol.
He claimed that manufacturing enterprise performs six functions:
1) technical activity(production);
2) commercial activity(purchase, sale, exchange);
3) financial activity (use of capital);
4) activities aimed at ensuring security (protection of property and personnel);
5) Accounting(checking funds, balance sheets, cost accounting);
6) managerial activity(planning, coordination, control).
Henri Fayol formulated 14 world-famous principles of management:
1. Division of labor.
2. Power, inseparable from responsibility.
3. Discipline, obligatory for all.
4. Unity of management (i.e. only one leader gives orders).
5. Unity leadership (unity of command).
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general ones.
7. Fair remuneration.
8. The right balance of centralization and decentralization.
9. Power vertical (hierarchy of subordination).
10. Order is a place for everything, and everything has its place.
11. Fairness based on objectivity.
12. Staff stability.
13. Initiative.
14.Corporate spirit (i.e. the unity of the staff).
All these principles have been scientifically substantiated and proven, and are currently being applied.
Around the same time, another school of management began to form - school of human relations. The school arose as an opposition to Taylorism. The founders of this school turned the managerial theory towards the person, towards the social side of the production process. The school was headed by Elton Mayo.
The main provisions of the theory of E. Mayo:
1. Clearly designed work operations and high salary does not always lead to an increase in labor productivity.
2. Internal forces in the team can surpass the efforts of leaders.
3. A person's behavior at work and the results of his work largely depend on social conditions and the relationship between the worker and the manager.
4. The worker by nature is not lazy if he is created certain conditions, he will show diligence and initiative.
5. The manager must be a leader and take into account the prevailing conditions in his work.
Thus, there was a shift in the center of research in management to the person and his behavior.
3. Behavioral concepts of A. Maslow, D. McGregor,
F. Herzberg, D. McClelland, V. Vroom
The most famous and frequently used behavioral concepts belong to the American scientists Abraham Maslow and Douglas MacGregor, Frederick Herzberg, David McClelland.
By creating motivation theory A. Maslow proceeded from the fact that people have many needs that can be grouped into five groups:
1. Physiological needs (food, water, shelter, rest).
2. The need for security, security, confidence in the future (drawing up an insurance policy, finding a good job, etc.).
3. Social needs is a feeling of belonging to something or someone, a feeling of affection and support.
4. The need for respect, for recognition of one's own importance, competence.
5. The need for self-expression (realization of one's potential, growth and development as a person).
A. Maslow arranged all these needs in the form of a strict hierarchical structure, thereby emphasizing that the needs of a higher level arise after the needs of the lower levels are satisfied (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1 - Hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow
The hierarchical levels of the pyramid are not discrete, since in order for the next, higher level to begin to determine human behavior, it is not necessary to
100% needs of the lower level of Maslow's pyramid must be realized.
At an economically advanced level, primary needs (physiological and safety) are of relatively little importance to most people. At the same time, secondary needs serve as a strong motivating factor in people's behavior.
Maslow's theory is used in management to determine the motivation of employees to work. Managers can help motivate employees to work in various ways (Table 6.1).
Believing that the classification of needs proposed by Maslow is not complete, D. McClelland supplemented it and introduced the concepts of the needs of power, success and involvement.
D. McClelland's Theory of Needs represents another model of motivation focused on the needs of higher levels.
According to this theory, people have three needs: power, success, belonging. The need for power is expressed as a desire to influence other people. People with a need for power most often manifest themselves as frank and energetic people who are not afraid of confrontation and strive to defend their original positions. Often they are good speakers and require increased attention from others. They are not necessarily power-hungry careerists. Such people need to be motivated by the achievement of collective goals.
The need for success is realized in the process of labor activity. People with a highly developed need for success take moderate risks, like situations in which they can take personal responsibility for finding a solution to a problem, and want specific rewards for their results. These qualities should be taken into account when motivating their work activity.
The need for belonging is developed in people who are interested in establishing friendships, in helping others, in the possibility of social communication. To develop motivation to work, leaders should not limit interpersonal relationships and contacts.
Table 6.1 - Methods for meeting the needs of higher levels
| Social needs |
| 1. Give employees the kind of work that would allow them to communicate 2. Create a team spirit in the workplace 3. Hold periodic meetings with subordinates 4. Do not try to break up informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization 5. Create conditions for social activities of members of the organization outside its framework |
| Needs for respect |
| 1. Offer subordinates more meaningful work 2. Provide them with a positive feedback with achieved results 3. Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates 4. Involve subordinates in the formulation of goals and decision-making 5. Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates 6. Promote subordinates through the ranks 7. Provide training and retraining that increases the level of competence |
| Needs for self-expression |
| 1. Provide subordinates with opportunities for learning and development to reach their full potential 2. Give subordinates challenging and important work 3. Encourage and develop creativity in subordinates |
Theories of motivation based on the needs that determine human behavior are called meaningful. Theories based on the perceptions and expectations associated with a particular situation and possible consequences the chosen type of behavior are called process.
Expectancy Theory(a great contribution to its development was made by Victor Vroom) is based on the assertion that a person strives to achieve a goal only if he expects certain results for himself (reward) from this.
Motivation, therefore, consists of three factors: the ratio of efforts or costs (Z) and the results obtained (P), the ratio of results (P) and the expected reward (B), valence (the value of the reward or encouragement). The relationship between these factors is shown schematically in Figure 6.2.
| Expected reward value |
| Motivation |
Z - R R - B Valence
Motivation \u003d Z - R R - B valency
Figure 6.2 - Vroom's motivation model
Justice theory argues that people subjectively assess the ratio of remuneration and effort expended and compare them with what other workers have for similar work.
L. Porter and E. Lawler developed a complex procedural theory of motivation, including elements of the theory of expectations and the theory of justice, which states that labor productivity generates job satisfaction, and not vice versa.
TOPIC 2. STRATEGIC PLANNING
AS A FUNCTION OF MANAGEMENT
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1. Introduction
Which of the following characterizes management as an art?
Man as a subject of control
Management concept
Modeling and quantification
The main characteristic of an organization as an open system
Willingness to rethink your mission
Exchange of resources with the external environment
Market Leadership
The science of management affects its effectiveness in the following ways:
Allows you to see and recognize the problem
Forms professional consciousness
Develops and equips management with new methods
Management is:
Art and science
The science
Art
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2. Development of management as a scientific discipline
The principles of the bureaucratic method of personnel management were the first to formulate:
F. Taylor
A. Smith
A. Fayol
M. Weber
New scientific direction in management, which emerged from the results of the Hawthorne experiment, is based on the premise that ...
management work is a specialty
continuous improvement of technological operations is the key to the effectiveness of the organization
developed working procedures and good wage- the key to increasing productivity
The human factor is the main element of the effectiveness of the organization
Representatives of the school of scientific management named as the main objectives of the study:
Maintaining a satisfactory socio-psychological climate in the organization
Temporary control of production operations
Maximize workplace productivity
Definition of functions and principles of effective management
Peter Drucker is considered the founder of the approach to management:
software
situational
systemic
process
One of the basic principles of management according to Henri Fayol says: "Power is inseparable from ..."
Responsibility
arrived
administration
corruption
3. External and internal environment organizations
The main characteristics of the external environment of the organization include ...
interconnectedness and predictability
certainty and predictability
complexity, mobility, certainty
Interconnection of factors, complexity and uncertainty
The elements that make up the environment of indirect impact on the enterprise include ...
competitors
natural and climatic conditions
International events
suppliers
According to management theory, environmental factors of indirect impact include:
culture
consumers
unions and interest societies
suppliers
According to management theory, a manager can directly influence the following factors...
Organization structure
Organization goals
mass media
competitors
In the practice of management, business on the Internet has the following advantages..
reduces the cost of goods by reducing quality
focused on a niche market and involves good knowledge permanent consumer
combines the system of individual orders and mass production
Provides cost savings and faster time-to-market
4. Sociofactors and ethics of management
Ethics is...
level of education
The system of norms of moral behavior
form of social consciousness
public institution
Ethical values towards employees may include:
honesty in competition
Social guarantees
attention to consumers
Fair pay
An ethical approach to understanding social responsibility business means:
managers and employees of the organization are responsible for a balanced pursuit of both the interests of the company and the interests of stakeholders
organizations must bear voluntary obligations to society and allocate part of the funds for its improvement
business organizations should serve the interests of their owners
The organization as a whole has a responsibility ethical character in front of certain groups stakeholders- stakeholders
One approach to business ethics is
individualism
democracy
liberalism
Utilitarianism
5. Management communications
Intraorganizational processes, formed and directed by management, include three main processes: coordination, decision making and ...
Communications
motivation
planning
control
According to management theory, the main elements of the communication process are ...
Sender, message, channel, recipient
environment, sender, message, recipient
sender, non-verbal information, channel, recipient
organization, sender, message, recipient
According to the theory of management in the information network ____, one manager controls the activities of several subordinates, information flows come from one center, which allows you to quickly take action.
"tent"
+"star"
"spur"
"a circle"
From the point of view of management theory, there are no barriers to interpersonal communication
use of demagogy methods
semantic barriers
non-verbal barriers
Information overload
The purposes of the exchange of information are not:
improving the efficiency of the organization
Choosing the most economical alternative
ensuring the consistent movement of the organization towards the intended goals
choosing an alternative from the majority of possible options
6. Acceptance process management decision
When forming a sequence of actions in the procedure for making a managerial decision, the “problem identification” stage is understood as ...
Choosing the only alternative
Analysis of deviations from standard values
Description of the problem situation
Formation of a list of alternatives
Bringing tasks to the executors in the process of implementing a management decision means setting before each executor specific tasks and their definition...
Their rights, obligations and functions in the execution of the decision
their relation to the implemented solution
their ability to implement it
wages and their work
If you need to make a rational management decision, you ...
will be guided by common sense» and past experience of dealing with similar situations
weigh the positive and negative consequences of each course of action and make a decision based on the “lesser of two evils” principle
without spending preliminary analysis situation, make a decision on impulse that the chosen course of action is the best
Determine the symptoms, limitations and criteria of optimality, by which you can compare different alternatives and choose the best one.
Method brainstorming in making managerial decisions focused on ....
development of creative ideas by specialists with the help of the association
Collective development of creative ideas
application of sole authority of an expert
development of a detailed algorithm for the problem solving process
The starting point for verifying the execution of a management decision should be ...
planning the implementation of the solution for the future
observation and measurement of the processes and phenomena being checked
comparison of the results of checking the execution of the solution with the specified standards
Determination of the parameters of the functioning of the organization, subject to verification
7. Strategic planning as a control function
result ongoing planning is:
Annual Plan
Mission
Investment project
strategic plan
The process of determining the direction of development of the organization and developing practical measures to achieve the goals of the organization in management is called ..
control
organization
forecasting
Planning
Forecasting in management theory is a management method that uses ...
Current assumptions about future developments
analysis of compliance with planned and actual indicators
impact data external factors to the enterprise
Experience accumulated in the past
Which of the forecasting methods in management theory require information about the predicted project parameter for previous periods ...
extrapolation method
expert opinions
regression model development
"brain attack"
Planning objects in the organization do not include ...
Quotas
personnel
marketing
finance
8. Organizational forms and management structures
The process of transferring authority to subordinate managers to perform special tasks is called ________ authority.
Withdrawal
delegation
distribution
narrowing
The rights of the manager to use certain resources of the organization, as well as to direct efforts individual employees to perform certain tasks are the essence of the term
power
a responsibility
delegation
Powers
For small firm producing one or more types of products or services, from the point of view of management theory, the most appropriate organizational structure
divisional
matrix
informal
Linear-functional
Divisional division in management organizational structure based on principles such as...
Grocery (productive)
political
Geographical
consumer
The principle of responsibility in management means
The need for punishment for non-compliance with assigned tasks
Knowledge by the manager of the control object
Vertical division of managerial labor
Identification of management levels and building a hierarchy
9. Control as a function of management
The essence of coordination common function management is…
customer satisfaction
profit maximization
Taking timely measures to ensure the smooth progress of production
detecting a problem in the production process
An effective control system should have the following characteristics: timeliness, flexibility, simplicity and …
structural
economy
Formalization of procedures
many variability of methods and methods of control
The system for checking the compliance of the functioning of the control object at given points in time is called ...
substantiation
control
regulation
leadership
Preliminary control at a specific site of work provides for the prevention of violations of the established rules for conducting work and precedes the process ...
Analysis of the organization's environment
Settings production equipment in this area
Planning
Carrying out business transactions
The types of control in management do not include _______ control.
preliminary
final
current
motivating