The concepts of "communication" and "mass communication"

Let's take a look at what communication is.

If we understand communication literally, then this is communication, the exchange of thoughts, feelings, emotions, knowledge, etc. between individuals. (Regardless of the number of participants in the process).

In a more scientific aspect, one should talk about communication - as a process of disseminating information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.), with the help of technical means(press, radio, television, etc.) to numerically large, dispersed audiences. Communication can also be understood as a certain kind of joint activity of participants - communicants, during which a certain view of things is developed.

Mass communication.

According to the definition of the Russian scientist B. Firsov: "Mass communication is the systematic dissemination of messages among numerically large, dispersed audiences in order to influence the assessments, opinions and behavior of people."

Mass communication is a system consisting of a source of messages and their recipient, interconnected by a physical channel for the movement of messages. These channels are:

• printing (newspapers, magazines, brochures, books of mass publications, leaflets, posters);
• · radio and television - a network of broadcasting stations and audiences with radio and television receivers;
• · cinema, provided with a constant influx of films and a network of projection installations;
• sound recording, video recording.

The main parameters that distinguish mass communication from other types of communication are quantitative.

main function mass communication is to ensure the relationship between the elements of the community (individuals, social groups, classes) and between the communities themselves in order to maintain the dynamic unity and integrity of a given social entity.

Mass communication, by disseminating certain information and responding to audience requests, implements the following social tasks:

• · Creates and maintains a common "picture of the world".
• · Creates and maintains a “picture of a separate community”.
• · Passes on from generation to generation the values ​​of culture.
• Provides a mass audience with entertaining, tonic information.

Structural models of mass communication

Mass communication has a number of specific features. They are most evident when considering communication through structural models. Let's consider a few of them:

I) Lasswell Model

American political scientist Harold Dwight Lasswell proposed a linear model of communication, highlighting 5 elements in it:

• § WHO transmits the message - communicator;
• § WHAT conveys - the message itself;
• § HOW / HOW the message is transmitted - channel;
• § TO whom the message was sent - the audience;
• § WITH WHAT EFFECT - the efficiency of transmission and reception.

Lasswell considers the addressee (the recipient of information) as an object that is "managed". It is assumed that the message reaches the addressee unchanged.

Later, already in 1968, G. Lasswell proposed a more detailed version of his communication model. Its essence is also built on questions, only now they are much more detailed:

Who? With what intention? In what situation? With what resources? Using what strategy? Influences which audience? With what result?

The key question in the augmented model is "With what intent?". Only having understood the true purpose of communication, we can talk about the selection of means and about the choice target audience. As in any other work, a clear understanding of the goal determines, accordingly, the selection of other components of communication as a condition for its effectiveness.

Lasswell's "communicative formula" is both a model for studying the communication process and a detailed plan of the actual communicative action - this is its undoubted merit. At the same time, it also has a significant drawback - it is monological, it lacks feedback, thanks to which we consider communication not unidirectional and not "in itself", but as a two-way process.

II) Shannon-Weaver model.

Mathematicians K. E. Shannon and W. Weaver worked on a communicative model in the late 40s. commissioned by the Bell Telecom television company, which determined the technical focus of their model. In essence, this model is a graphical similarity to the previous one. It is based on an analogy with telephone communication.

In this model:

The source is the one who makes the call (transmits the message);

The message is the transmitted information;

Telephone transmitter -- encoder;

Telephone wire - channel;

Telephone receiver (second device) - decoder;

The recipient is the person to whom the message is addressed.

Suppose two people living in different countries, speaking different languages ​​and poorly understanding the language of their subscriber, are forced to negotiate by phone. At the same time, the conversation time is limited, and telephone communications unstable. It is clear that this conversation will be accompanied by constant interference (noise) that occurs on the communication line, the subscribers will not understand each other's language well. It is clear that in this situation they are trying to maximize the amount of information transmitted over the communication line.

The mathematical theory of communication was originally developed with the aim of separating noise from useful information transmitted by the source. According to Shannon, overcoming noise can be achieved by using signal redundancy

The concept of redundancy - the repetition of message elements to prevent communicative failure - is most often demonstrated in natural human languages. It is believed that all languages ​​are about half redundant: you can ink half the words of a text or erase half the words in a radio speech, and still be able to understand. Of course, there is a limit of acceptable noise, beyond which the possibility of understanding is sharply reduced.

Shannon's mathematical theory of communication abstracts from the content of the transmitted information, focusing entirely on its quantity: it doesn't matter what message is transmitted, what matters is how many signals are transmitted.

The advantage of this model is due to the fact that with its appearance, an idea arose about the speed and amount of transmitted information. However, the Shannon-Weaver model also has a number of limitations:

• § it is mechanistic - it reflects mainly technical methods of communication; a person is included in it only as a "source" or "receiver" of information;
• § it abstracts from the content, the meaning of the transmitted information, paying attention only to its quantity;
• § The communicative process in this model is linear, unidirectional, there is no feedback.

III) Two-stage communication model.

When studying mass communications, P. Lazarsfeld developed a model of two-stage communication. He drew attention to one pattern: the impact of information transmitted to the population through the media does not weaken after a while, but only intensifies. Studies have shown that information is absorbed by the mass audience not immediately, but after some time and under the influence of "opinion leaders". This fact made it possible to significantly correct the activities of the media.

According to the two-stage communication model, the information disseminated by the media does not reach the target audience directly, but in two stages. At the first stage, the transmitted information reaches a special category of influential and active people - "opinion leaders". In the second stage, these leaders convey the message further through direct contact with the members of their group, i.e. in the process of interpersonal communication. Even in cases where the information comes directly to the rank and file members of the group, they usually turn to the leaders for clarification.

Lazarsfeld showed that the mass media, as such, are ineffective at the level individual person, they do not change either his opinions or his attitudes, but, penetrating into the primary groups of neighbors, family, friends as a result of personal and group discussions, they influence a person and change his opinion. This model is especially pronounced in relation to information relating to something "high" - art, cultural heritage, historical memory.

Further development of this model is associated with the identification of the so-called "intermediary factors", based on which there is an impact on a person, for example: a person's predisposition to perceive certain information; a person's belonging to a certain group and the influence of group values ​​and norms. It is the “intermediary factors” that are able to loosen and change established points of view and attitudes that lead to changes in the behavior of the audience.

The Lazarsfeld model can be evaluated as a two-sided model, so in this case the sender shapes the submitted information based on the interests and needs of community groups. Information provided to the public complies with the "addressee rule", that is, it is understandable to the audience.

Conclusion: Having studied several structural models of mass communication, which are basic for all subsequent models, we can conclude that for the successful transmission and reception of information, many factors must be taken into account. First of all, be puzzled by the question “why do we need this?”; choose and take into account the specifics of our audience, what kind of reaction our information can cause. Take into account the fact that any information is "dusty", is not transmitted in full, and sometimes on the principle of a "broken phone". And, of course, take into account the psychology of the respondents, their characteristics and beliefs. More serious communication will require much more effort and money.

the process of disseminating information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.) using technical means (press, radio, television, etc.) to numerically large, dispersed audiences. Mass media (MSK) are special channels and transmitters, thanks to which the
dissemination of information messages over large areas.
Mass communication is primarily characterized by:
the availability of technical means that ensure the regularity, mass character, publicity of messages, their social relevance;
social significance information that helps to increase the motivation of mass communication;
the mass nature of the audience, which, due to its dispersal and anonymity, requires a carefully thought-out value orientation;
multi-channel and the possibility of choosing communication tools that provide variability and, at the same time, normativity of mass communication;
lack of direct connection between the communicator and the audience in the process of communication.
Mass communication has its own specific nature. In table. the main differences between mass and interpersonal communication are given. Mass communication Interpersonal communication Mediated communication by technical means Direct contact in communication Communication of large social groups Communication mostly between single individuals
Pronounced Both social, social and individual orientation of personal communication orientation of communication Organized, As an institutional nature of communication, organized, and (to a greater extent) spontaneous nature of communication Absence The presence of a direct connection between the communicator and the audience in the process of feedback between the communicators in communication in the process of a communicative act Increased More exactingness to “free”, compliance with the accepted attitude to compliance with the norms of communication, compliance with the accepted norms of communication communicator and his personality "private" personality
Mass character, publicity, social relevance and periodicity of messages Singularity, privacy universality, social and individual relevance, optional periodicity Predominance of a two-stage nature of the perception of a message Predominance of direct perception of a message Source: Lyapina, T. Political advertising. Kyiv, 2000. S. 98.
The uniqueness of the communication process in the QMS is associated with its following properties:
diachronism - a communicative property, due to which the message is preserved in time;
diatopnost - a communicative property that allows information messages to overcome space;
multiplication - a communicative property, due to which the message is subjected to repeated repetition with relatively unchanged content;
simultaneity - a property of the communication process that allows you to present adequate messages to many people almost simultaneously;
replication is a property that implements the regulatory impact of mass communication.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

• o the concept of mass communication;
• o the role of attitude and stereotype in the process of mass communication;
• o psychology of rumors and gossip.

The concept of mass communication

Communication is one of the central components of modern society. The status of a country, firm, organization in the real world is also determined by its status in the information space.

mass communication- the process of disseminating information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.) using technical means (press, radio, television, computer technology etc.) to numerically large, dispersed audiences.

The main parameters that distinguish mass communication from group communication are quantitative. At the same time, due to a significant quantitative superiority (an increase in individual communicative acts, channels, participants, etc.), a new qualitative essence will be created, communication will have new opportunities, a need will be created for special means (transmission of information over a distance, speed, replication, etc.). .P.).

Conditions for the functioning of mass communication (according to V.P. Konetskaya):

• o mass audience (it is anonymous, spatially dispersed, but divided into interest groups, etc.);
• o the availability of technical means that ensure the regularity, speed, replication of information, its transmission over a distance, storage and multi-channel (in the modern era, everyone notes the predominance of the visual channel).

The first ever means mass media became a periodical. Her tasks have changed over time. So, in the XVI-XVII centuries. dominated by the authoritarian theory of the press, in the XVII century. - the theory of free press, in the XIX century. along with others, the theory of the proletarian press arose, and in the middle of the 20th century. the theory of socially responsible printing appeared. From the point of view of perception of information, periodicals are more complex shape compared to computer networks, radio and television. In addition, newspapers are less efficient than other types of media in terms of reporting. At the same time, periodical printed means of delivering mass information have undeniable advantages: a newspaper can be read almost everywhere; one and the same material of the newspaper can be repeatedly returned; newspaper material traditionally has all the signs of legal legitimacy; a newspaper can be passed to each other, etc. According to sociological surveys, the average citizen in the morning prefers radio as a means of mass communication, since in conditions of time pressure it creates an unobtrusive informational background, provides information and does not distract from business. In the evening, television is preferable, as it is the easiest in terms of information perception.

Mass communication is characterized by the following features:

• o mediation of communication by technical means (providing regularity and replication);
• o mass audience, communication of large social groups;
• o pronounced social orientation of communication;
• o organized, institutional nature of communication;
• o lack of direct connection between the communicator and the audience in the process of communication;
• o social significance of information;
• o multi-channel and the ability to choose communication tools that provide variability, normativity of mass communication;
• o increased demands for compliance with accepted standards of communication;
• o one-pointedness of information and fixation of communicative roles;
• o "collective" nature of the communicator and his public identity;
• o mass, spontaneous, anonymous, disparate audience;
• o mass character, publicity, social relevance and frequency of messages;
• o the predominance of the two-stage nature of the perception of the message.

The social significance of mass communication lies in the compliance with certain social demands and expectations (motivation, expectation of evaluation, formation of public opinion), impact (training, persuasion, suggestion, etc.). At the same time, the expected message is better perceived when separate messages are prepared for different target groups, taking into account the interests of the target audience.

The relationship between source and recipient in mass communication is also acquiring a qualitatively new character. The sender of the message is a public institution or a mythologized individual. The recipients are the target groups, united according to some social significant features. The task of mass communication is to maintain communication within groups and between them in society. In fact, such groups can be created as a result of the impact of mass messages (the electorate of the new party, the consumers of the new product, the clients of the new firm).

Mass communication, according to W. Eco, appears at a time when there is:

• o an industrial-type society, outwardly balanced, but in reality saturated with differences and contrasts;
• o communication channels, ensuring its receipt not by certain groups, but by an indefinite circle of addressees occupying different social status;
• o Groups of manufacturers that produce and release messages in an industrial way.

G. Lasswell names the following functions of mass communication:

• o informational (survey of the surrounding world),
• o regulatory (impact on society and knowledge of it through feedback);
• o cultural (preservation and transmission of cultural heritage from generation to generation);
• o A number of explorers add an entertainment feature.

V.P. Konetskaya speaks of three groups of theories focused on the predominance of one or another leading function of mass communication:

• o political control;
• o indirect spiritual control;
• o cultural.

The globalization of mass communication, predicted by M. McLuhan, at the end of the 20th century. expressed in the development of the worldwide computer network Internet. The possibility of almost instantaneous communication with the simultaneous use of visual and auditory channels, textual and non-verbal communication has qualitatively changed communication. The concept of virtual communication appeared. In the literal sense, the network itself is not a mass medium, it can be used for both interpersonal and group communication. At the same time, the opportunities that it opens up specifically for mass communication testify to the beginning of a new era in the development of communication systems.

We can say that communication in nature and society has gone through the following stages:

• 1) tactile-kinetic in higher primates;
• 2) oral-verbal among primitive peoples;
• 3) written-verbal at the dawn of civilization;
• 4) printing and verbal after the invention of the book and the printing press;
• 5) multi-channel, starting at the present moment.

Mass communication, especially in the modern era, is characterized by multi-channel: visual, auditory, auditory-visual channel, oral or written form of communication, etc. are used. Appeared technical possibility bidirectional communication, both open (interactivity) and covert (reaction of the listener or viewer, behavior), mutual adaptation of the sender and recipients. Because both channel selection and accommodation are influenced by society and recipient groups, it is sometimes said that the media is ourselves.

Mass character as a defining characteristic of mass communication actually creates new entities in the communication process. Participants in the communication process are considered not individual individuals, but mythologized collective subjects: the people, the party, the government, the army, the oligarchs, etc. Even individuals appear as image mythologemes: the president, party leader, media magnate, etc. Modern researchers come to the conclusion that the function of informing in mass communication is giving way to the function of association, and after it - management, maintaining social status, subordination and power.

The emergence and development of technical means of communication led to the formation of a new social space - mass society. This society is characterized by the presence of specific means of communication - mass media.

Mass media (MSK) are special channels and transmitters, thanks to which information messages are disseminated over large areas. Technical means in mass communication include the media (mass media: press, radio, television, the Internet), mass media (SMV: theater, cinema, circus, spectacle, literature) and technical means proper (mail, telephone, telefax, modem). ).

Mass communication plays the role of a regulator of the dynamic processes of the social psyche; the role of an integrator of mass sentiments; channel of circulation of psycho-forming information. As a result, mass media are powerful tool the impact of cash on the social group. The uniqueness of the communication process in the QMS is associated with its following properties (according to M. A. Vasilik):

• o diachronism - a communicative property, due to which the message is stored in time;
• o diatopicity - a communicative property that allows information messages to overcome space;
• o multiplication - a communicative property, due to which the message is subjected to repeated repetition with relatively unchanged content;
• o simultaneity - a property of the communication process that allows you to present adequate messages to many people almost simultaneously;
• o replication - a property that implements the regulatory impact of mass communication.

The rapid development of mass media in the XX century. led to a change in worldview, transformation, the formation of a new virtual world communication. There are two main directions in the theory of mass communication:

• 1) a person-centered approach that supported the minimum effect model. The essence of this approach is that people are more likely to adapt the mass media to their needs and requirements. Proponents of a human-centered approach proceeded from the fact that people selectively perceive incoming information. They choose that part of the information that matches their opinion, and reject the one that does not fit into this opinion. Among the models of mass communication here are: the constructionist model of V. Gamson, the "spiral of silence" by E. Noel-Neumann.
• 2) media-oriented approach. This approach is based on the fact that a person is subject to the action of mass media. They act on him like a drug that is impossible to resist. The most prominent representative of this approach is G. McLuhan (1911 - 1980).

G. McLuhan was the first to draw attention to the role of mass media, especially television, in shaping mass consciousness, regardless of the content of the message. Television, collecting on the screen all times and spaces at once, collides them in the minds of viewers, giving significance even to the ordinary. By drawing attention to what has already happened, television informs the audience about the end result. This creates in the minds of viewers the illusion that the demonstration of the action itself leads to this result. It turns out that the reaction precedes the action. The viewer, therefore, is forced to accept and assimilate the structural-resonant mosaic of the television image. The effectiveness of the perception of information is influenced by the life experience of the viewer, memory and speed of perception, his social attitudes. As a result, television actively influences the spatial and temporal organization of information perception. The activity of the mass media ceases to be a derivative of any events for a person. The means of mass communication begin to act in the mind of a person as the root cause, endowing reality with its properties. There is a construction, mythologization of reality by means of mass communication. The mass media begin to perform the functions of ideological, political influence, organization, management, information, education, entertainment, and maintenance of the social community.

Mass media functions:

• o social orientation;
• o social identification;
• o contact with other people;
• o self-affirmation;
• o utilitarian;
• o emotional release.

In addition to these socio-psychological functions, according to the French researchers A. Catl and A. Kade, SM K perform the functions of an antenna, amplifier, prism and echo in society.

Among the methods of research of mass communication stands out:

• o text analysis (using content analysis);
• o advocacy analysis;
• o analysis of rumors;
• o observations;
• o surveys (questionnaires, interviews, tests, experiments).

Content analysis (content analysis) is one of the methods for studying documents (texts, video and audio materials). The content analysis procedure involves counting the frequency and volume of references to certain units of the text under study. The resulting quantitative characteristics of the text make it possible to draw conclusions about the qualitative, including the hidden content of the text. Using this method, you can explore the social attitudes of the audience of mass media.

G. G. Pocheptsov, describing the models of mass communication, singled out the standard classical unified model of communication, which consists of the following elements: source - encoding - message - decoding - recipient.

Note that, since the process of transition to the message is often built with some delay, including the processes of various transformations of the source text, an additional stage is introduced - "coding". An example would be a speech delivered by a group of assistants to a company executive. In this case, there is an encoding of the original intentions into a message, which is then read out by the leader.

constructionist model. American professor W. Gemson believes that different social groups are trying to impose on society their own model of interpretation of an event.

The predecessors of the W. Gemson model were two models: 1) minimal effect and 2) maximum effect.

The maximum effect model was based on the following factors for the successful use of communications:

• 1) the success of propaganda in the First world war, which became the first systematic manipulation of mass consciousness;
• 2) the emergence of the public relations industry;
• 3) totalitarian control in Germany and the USSR. Considering it, the researchers came to the conclusion that communication can affect a person and nothing can be opposed to it.

The minimum effect model was based on the following factors:

• 1) selective perception. People selectively perceive information, they perceive what coincides with their opinion, and do not perceive what contradicts their views;
• 2) the transition to considering a person as a social molecule from considering him as an individualized atom;
• 3) political behavior during elections. Researchers of electoral technologies have paid attention to the resistance of voters. The conclusion that they made is that it is impossible to change the stereotype, the predisposition of the voter, the struggle can be waged only for those who have not yet made a final decision.

These two models - maximum / minimum effect - can be represented as an emphasis either on the source (in the case of maximum understanding, everything is in his hands), or on the recipient.

W. Gemson bases the constructionist model, relying on some modern approaches. Considering that the effect of the mass media is not the same and minimal, he lists the following components:

• 1) work with the definition of "idea of ​​the day", revealing how the mass media gives people the keys to understanding reality;
• 2) work within the framework of presidential races, where the press influences people's assessments;
• 3) the phenomenon of the spiral of silence, showing how the press, by giving a voice to a minority, makes the majority feel like a minority and not pretend to speak publicly;
• 4) the effect of cultivation, when artistic television, with its massive display of, for example, violence, influences municipal politics, dictating priorities.

W. Gemson distinguishes two levels of functioning of his model: cultural and cognitive.

Cultural level - this is about "packaging" messages in ways such as metaphors, visual images, references to morality. This level characterizes the discourse of mass media.

The cognitive level is related to public opinion. It adapts the information received to the psychological prerequisites and life experience each person.

The interaction of these two levels, functioning in parallel, gives the social construction of meanings.

mass communication audience as an object of information impact can be divided into mass and specialized. Such a division is carried out on the basis of a quantitative criterion, although in some cases a specialized audience may turn out to be either more or less numerous than a mass one, based on the nature of the association of people that make up the audience.

Theoretical ideas about the mass audience are quite ambivalent.

This term is most commonly used for:

• o all consumers of information distributed through media channels (readers, radio listeners, TV viewers, buyers of audio and video products, etc.), where mass character is the main attribute of this audience;
• o random associations of people who do not have common professional, age, political, economic, cultural and other characteristics and interests (a crowd of onlookers who have gathered to listen to a street speaker or musicians, etc.).

In the scientific community that studies the processes of mass communications and their means, there are conceptual interpretations of the concept of a mass audience. In some cases, it appears to us in the form of an inert, unorganized mass, passively absorbing everything that the media offer. Here we are talking about the mass audience as an amorphous formation, poorly organized, without clear boundaries and changing depending on the situation.

In other cases, the mass audience looks like a social force capable of actively influencing the "mass media", requiring them to satisfy their own special (age, professional, cultural, ethnic, etc.) desires and interests (meaning organized, systemic, well-structured education).

Verification of these interpretations is carried out within the framework of two approaches. The theoretical basis of the first is the concept of two-stage communication by P. Lazarsfeld and a number of other specialists in this field. They proposed to study the mass audience not as an amorphous set of consumers (atoms), but as a system consisting of groups (molecules). These groups have their own "opinion leaders" who are able, through interpersonal (interatomic) connections, to streamline and structure the mass audience, to form certain ideas about the media and about the information itself - its content, form and purpose. However, most modern theories focus on the growing massive indifference of the audience, its destructuring, entropy, which results in the increasing manipulation of its consciousness by the media.

Quantitative socio-structural characteristics of the audience (i.e. data on gender, age, education, occupation and place of residence, their interests and preferences) are, of course, necessary, but this is only the first stage of knowledge. This is explained by the fact that with this perspective of its study, many processes that arise in the minds of people as a result of the perception of media products remain out of sight. Thus, television ratings answer the questions "what" and "how much", but do not answer the questions "why" and "with what result". Answers to these questions require qualitative analysis both the audience itself and the processes of the functioning of the media, which includes the study of communication technologies and their influence on the pictures of reality that arise in the minds of viewers.

A specialized audience is a fairly definite and stable whole with more or less defined boundaries, including many individuals. People in them are united by common interests, goals, value systems, lifestyle, mutual sympathy, as well as common social, professional, cultural, demographic and other characteristics. This audience can be considered as a wide segment of the mass media audience if it is, for example:

• o about the audience of a certain type of mass communication (only about radio listeners or only about TV viewers, newspaper readers, etc.);
• o about the audience of a particular mass communication channel (about viewers of ORT or RenTV; about radio listeners of Retro-FM or Radio Russia; readers of Vesti or Kommersant newspapers, etc.);
• o about the audience of certain types of messages (headings) - news, sports, criminal, cultural, etc.

The presence of specialized audiences is an indicator that the public perceives information depending on their social, cultural, educational, professional, demographic, age and other characteristics. The ability to structure the audience, identify the necessary segments (target groups) in it largely determines the success of communication, no matter what specific form it takes - party propaganda, election campaign, advertising of goods and services, commercial transactions, environmental or cultural events.

Each of the groups requires its own strategy, its own ways of informing and forms of communication. And the more accurately the audience differentiation is carried out and the parameters of the target group are determined, the more successfully communication will be carried out.

The creation and consumption of mass media is directly related to psychological processes perception and assimilation. The main role in the process of consumption is played by the audience - the direct consumers of this information.

Audiences can be stable or unstable in their preferences, habits, frequency of appeal, which is taken into account when studying the interaction between the source and recipient of information.

The characteristics of the audience largely depend on its socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, income, level of education, place of residence, marital status, professional orientation, etc.). Also, when receiving mass information, the behavior of the audience is mediated by factors of an objective nature (uniqueness of circumstances, external environment, etc.). The relevance for consumers and the significance of the mass information itself and the source of its transmission are often indicated by the quantitative parameters of the audience: the larger the audience, the more important the information and the more significant its source.

Audience types. The typology of the audience is based on the possibility of access of certain groups of the population to specific sources of information. Based on this, the following types of audiences can be named:

• o conditional and non-targeted (whom the media does not directly target);
• o regular and irregular;
• o real and potential (who is actually the audience of this media and who has access to it).

Audience analysis carried out in two directions:

• 1) according to the form of information consumption by different social communities;
• 2) methods of operating the received information.

Stages of interaction between audiences and information:

• o contact with the source (channel) of information;
• o contact with the information itself;
• o receiving information;
• o development of information;
• o formation of attitude to information.

By access to the source of information and the information itself, the entire population is divided into an audience and a non-audience. At present, most people in developed countries belong to the real or potential audience of the QMS.

Non-audience happens:

• o absolute (those who do not have access to the QMS at all, there are already few such people);
• o relative (who has limited access to the QMS - no money for newspapers, a computer, etc.).

It should be noted that SMC products, which are formally available to the majority of the population, are consumed in different ways.

Features of consumption and assimilation of mass information directly depend on the level of readiness of the audience to accept information, which can be identified on the basis of the following features:

• o the degree of proficiency in the vocabulary of the media language in general;
• o the degree of understanding of a particular text;
• o the degree of development of internal operation (adequate semantic interpretation of the text);
• o adequate reproduction of the meaning of the text in speech.

The French sociologist A. Touraine identified four cultural and informational strata of modern society:

• 1) the lowest level - representatives of forms of social life that are fading into the past, peripheral in relation to modern information production, actually excluded from the sphere of mass information consumption (immigrants from developing countries, representatives of the elderly population, degrading rural communities, lumpen, unemployed, etc. );
• 2) low-skilled workers (mainly focused on entertainment products);
• 3) active consumers of the products of the QMS - employees oriented towards superiors, executing other people's decisions (this includes journalists and PR managers);
• 4) "technocrats" (managers, producers of new knowledge and values, combining professional interests and aristocratic art).

Nowadays, people need social information, as a result of which the information and consumer activity of the audience is activated. It includes the reception, assimilation, evaluation and memorization of information and manifests itself in the following forms:

• o complete - complete reading, viewing, listening and analysis;
• o partial - superficial review without analysis and serious conclusions;
• o refusal to receive a message in case of its irrelevance (disinterest in an article or transmission) or an overabundance of information of a certain direction or topic, when there is a threat of "satiation of information" on a particular issue.

An acute problem of information-consumer activity of a mass audience is misunderstanding. There are usually two types of misunderstanding:

• 1) subjective - the unwillingness of the audience and individual subjects to understand the problems, to learn and remember the terminology;
• 2) objective - due to ignorance of new words, peculiarities of personal perception and social stereotypes, as well as all kinds of distortions in the transmission of information in the media.

Modern media strive to qualitatively improve the process of information and consumer activity. For this purpose, feedback is established between communicators and audiences:

• o epistolary (by mail);
• o instant ("hot line", " hot phone", an interactive survey over a telephone or computer network);
• o questioning the audience;
• o conferences are held (discussion of media products), consultations and joint preparation of materials for issues of the author's asset "editorial" and representatives of the QMS audience;
• o assessment of the activities of a particular media outlet (study of reviews, reviews and reviews of a mass media source);
• o rating studies ("measurements" with the help of sociological research daily dynamics of the real audience of publications and programs).

In general, the consumption of mass information is a complex and psychologically active process that divides the audience according to economic, socio-demographic, cultural and other characteristics. The process of mass information consumption is associated with the fact that the audience themselves produce mass social information, both directed through certain channels (for example, letters or requests to the media or government bodies), and "non-channelized" (diffuse), circulating in poorly structured networks of interpersonal communication ( rumors, conversations, etc.).

Mass Communication Functions. In 1948, G. Lasswell identified three main functions of mass communication:

• 1) review of the surrounding world, which can be interpreted as an information function;
• 2) correlation with the social structures of society, which can be interpreted as the impact on society and its knowledge through feedback, i.e. communicative function;
• 3) the transfer of cultural heritage, which can be understood as a cognitive-culturological function, a function of the continuity of cultures.

In 1960, the American researcher K. Wright proposed to single out the following function of mass communication as an independent one - entertainment. In the early 1980s McQuale, a specialist in mass communication at the University of Amsterdam, singled out another function of mass communication - mobilizing, or organizational and managerial, referring to the specific tasks that mass communication performs during various campaigns.

Domestic scientists-psycholinguists distinguish four functions typical of radio and television communication: 1) informational; 2) regulatory; 3) social control; 4) socialization of the individual (i.e. education in the personality of traits that are desirable for society).

The information function is to provide the general reader, listener and viewer with up-to-date information about various fields of activity - political, legal, business, scientific and technical, medical, etc. A large amount of information allows people to expand their cognitive capabilities, increase their creative potential. Knowing the necessary information allows you to predict your actions, saves time, and increases motivation for joint actions. In this sense, this function contributes to the optimization of the useful activities of society and the individual.

The regulatory function has a wide range of impact on the mass audience, from establishing contacts to controlling society. Mass communication influences the formation of the public consciousness of the individual and the group, public opinion and the creation of social stereotypes. It also makes it possible to manipulate and control public consciousness, in fact, to exercise the function of social control.

People, as a rule, accept those social norms of behavior, ethical requirements, aesthetic principles that have been promoted by the media for a long time as a positive stereotype of lifestyle, clothing style, form of communication, etc. This is how the socialization of the subject takes place in accordance with the norms desirable for society in a given historical period.

The culturological function includes familiarization with the achievements of culture and art and contributes to the awareness of the society of the need for the continuity of culture, the preservation of cultural traditions. With the help of the media, people get acquainted with the characteristics of different cultures and subcultures. This develops aesthetic taste, promotes mutual understanding, the removal of social tension and, ultimately, the integration of society. The concept of mass culture is connected with this function.

Given the above characteristics and main functions of mass communication, its social entity is reduced to a powerful impact on society in order to optimize its activities, integration, socialization of the individual.

First of all, we must pay attention to the fact that practically any control of the masses (as well as, in fact, relationships within the masses) is based on knowledge of the laws of the psyche of the individual and the masses, extends into the plane of the existence of such laws, and occurs through the use of communication rules, or other in words - communication both between individuals and the mass, and communication (communications) within the mass (collective, community, gathering of people).

Consider what is communication.

Communication in translation from the Latin word communico means communication.

Communication should be understood as the exchange of thoughts, feelings, knowledge, etc., between individuals.

In a more scientific aspect, one should speak of communication as a unidirectional process of encoding and transmitting information from the source to receiving information by the recipient of the message. Communication can also be understood as a certain kind of joint activity of communication participants (communicants), during which a common (up to a certain limit) view of things is developed.

Communication takes place not only in human social systems. A certain kind of communication is typical for animals (mating dances of birds, the language of bees, etc.), and for mechanisms (pipelines, transport, telegraph and telephone signals, the interconnection of computers on the Internet, etc.).

The purpose of communication is to convey a message. Communication can take place not only in the process of direct communication through words, but also with the help of road signs, teletext, books, films, etc. In fact, there can be several purposes of communication. For example, a film may inform, entertain, warn, explain, and so on. The main reason for communication is the corresponding needs of an individual or a group of individuals. And then - the goals of communication serve the various needs of individuals.

Scientists R. Dimbleby and G. Burton divide our needs into four groups: personal, social, economic and creative.

According to A. Maslow, there are basic biological needs, and the needs of self-realization of the individual: 1) physiological needs (food, drink, sex); 2) security needs (roof over head, clothing, sense of security); 3) relationship needs (love, friendship, family, belonging to a group of people); 4) the need for respect (self-respect, recognition, power); 5) the need for self-realization (to be yourself, self-expression).

In the process of communication, several functions can be combined, one or two of which will be the main, determining ones.

Karl Buhler (1879-1963) singled out three functions of language that are manifested in any act of speech: a) the function of expression (expressive), correlated with the speaker; b) the function of address (appellative), correlated with the listener; c) the function of the message (representative), correlated with the subject of speech.

The sender of the message expresses himself, appeals to the recipient and represents the subject of communication.

Traditionally, two or three functions of communication are distinguished:

1) information function: the expression of ideas, concepts, thoughts and their communication to other communicants.

2) evaluative: expression of personal assessments and attitudes,

3) affective: the transfer of emotions and feelings.

Roger T. Bell associates three spheres with these functions humanities:

1) linguistics and philosophy (cognitive function),

2) sociology and social psychology (evaluative function),

3) psychology and literary criticism (affective function).

A functional characteristic of a communicative act can be given depending on its orientation and its main communicative task.

R. Dimbleby and G. Burton identify six functions of messages and communicative acts: warning, advice, information, persuasion, expression of opinion, entertainment.

This classification of functions is pragmatic, that is, associated with the use of communicative means to achieve certain goals.

Typology of communication.

There are the following forms of communication - written, oral, visual, etc. These forms differ from each other by special message encoding systems.

Communication media - combine various forms of communication, often using some technology to fill the temporal and spatial distance between the sender and recipient of the message (for example, a book: words, fonts, pictures, graphics). Mass media (MSK) can also include various forms of communication. For example, television and cinema use spoken language words, pictures, music; newspaper - written language words, fonts, illustrations, etc.

Some of the forms and means of communication are associated with technological limitations. For example, words are heard only at a distance of the power of the sender's voice and the hearing of the recipient. Printed materials are more resistant to time and space.

All forms and means of communication are 'extensions of the human body', supplementing and amplifying deficient functions, especially those of sight and hearing. For example, loudspeakers and audio transmissions amplify the voice, reducing the distance between communicants.

The means of communication can be used both intentionally and unintentionally. Non-verbal signals (facial expressions) very often inform the recipient without much desire of the sender of the message. An outside listener can also be an involuntary recipient of an oral speech message.

American researcher Edward Sapir made a distinction between fundamental means, or primary processes, communicative in nature, and some secondary means that facilitate the process of communication.

According to Sapir, the primary means of communication are: language, gestures,

imitation of public behavior in the process of inclusion in the lifestyle of society and "social hint" (implicit processes of new acts of communicative behavior).

Secondary means of communication are aimed at facilitating the primary communicative processes in society: language transformations, symbolism and the creation of physical conditions for the implementation of a communicative act.

Language transformations are associated with code substitution, symbolic “translation” (for example, oral language into writing, Morse code, etc.) and make communication possible in cases where it is difficult by circumstances (for example, time and distance).

Symbolic systems (flags-signals in the Navy, semaphore and traffic light, bugle in the army communicative environment, etc.) translate a possible verbal message not symbolically, but globally, in its entirety. This is required in cases where the speed of perception of the message is necessary, the speed of reaction, when the simplest yes / no answer is expected. In the military, for example, where ‘orders are not discussed’, or on the road, when there is not much time to turn at high speed, long text messages would be inappropriate.

The development of physical conditions that allow communication, according to Sapir, includes railways, aircraft (deliver the communicant), telegraph, telephone, radio (deliver the message or its reproduction). At the same time, the increase in the number of means expands the scope of communication.

Two opposite views on these processes belong to M. McLuhan and E. Sapir. McLuhan believed that the means largely determine the very content of the message. He believed that modern culture- visual in its essence, as opposed to, for example, culture XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, mainly written (printed). The globalization of communication, according to McLuhan, leads to the creation of a single communicative space - the ‘global village’. E. Sapir, on the contrary, expressed 'fear of being understood by too many'. From his point of view, this jeopardizes the psychological reality of the image of the extended self, as opposed to the non-self. The impossibility of keeping the message within the limits for which it is designed was also recognized as a price for facilitating communication (examples: listening devices or a drop in the level of artistic values ​​with an increase in demand and circulation). At the same time, he realized that it was rather the constraints on communication, such as the diversity of languages ​​and the need for translation, that were seen as a threatening obstacle. He also positively assessed the globalization of the scientific community and the introduction of the language of international communication.

Types of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, mass).

Types of communication are distinguished by the composition of communicants. This is due to the fact that the technology of the communicator in each case has its own specifics (even the volume of the voice in the case, for example, of talking with oneself, with one interlocutor or with a large group will differ).

There are the following types of communication:

1) intrapersonal communication (talking with oneself);

2) interpersonal communication (as a rule, two communicants participate, but there are options for an observer, an included observer and an outsider, communication against the background of witnesses present, in a crowd, in a restaurant, etc.);

3) group communication (within the group, between groups, individual - group);

4) mass communication (if a message is received or used by a large number of people, often consisting of groups of different interests and communicative experience (television, radio, Internet, etc.).

There may also be additional types of communication:

a) intercultural (communication both between peoples-bearers of different languages ​​and communicative cultures, or between states,

b) interpersonal - between individual representatives of these peoples or states),

c) organizational (communication in the business and industrial sphere, including interpersonal, group and personal-group communication).

These varieties are associated not only with the characteristics of the communicative environment in the area where communicative activity is carried out, but also with the composition of communicants (one communicator or a community of communicators, or some combination of both).

Group and mass communications (types and characteristics of groups; roles of an individual; stages of groups; leader, types and characteristics of a leader; specifics of mass communication, its difference from group communication).

The property of individuals is to unite in groups or masses.

The main features of groups: 1) common interests of group members; 2) communication between members.

Without interaction and exchange of views among members, a group cannot form.

The main types of groups are family, informal, formal.

1) A family group is an involuntary (parents are not chosen), long-term group with a variety of common interests (blood ties, blood ties, blood feuds).

2) Informal group - a friendly group, voluntary, not necessarily long-term.

3) A formal group is both a voluntary (music school, circles and clubs) and involuntary (school, army) group, with a fixed term and conditions of membership (from a day to life), an established structure and relationships between members (charter of the school, university, parties; constituent documents of the company), established goals and objectives (for example, educational: training and socialization; production: production of goods, services, making a profit; social: implementation of social tasks and relations).

In addition to statutory tasks, formal groups can also perform non-statutory tasks. This includes the development of relationships (joint parties and trips to nature); social protection of group members (medical and legal assistance, kindergartens and rest homes); personal development and image creation.

Group characteristics:

1) relationships and communication between members (relationships are not necessarily good, they can even be competitive and hostile);

2) common goals, interests and tasks for members (without communication, common goals do not create groups, for example, a crowd at a bus stop);

3) a system of values ​​and norms of behavior generally accepted for members (Charter of the guard and garrison service, the Charter of the CPSU, the Moral Code of the Builder of Communism);

4) a set of behavioral roles and models of communicative behavior developed by the group members in a certain situation (for example, at a meeting: chairman, secretary, presidium). These roles may change over time and as the group member develops as an individual (eg promotions).

Within the group, each member has a certain status (boss - subordinate, leader - follower, etc.). The role of each member of the group can be further supported by verbal and non-verbal markers (your majesty, comrade, insignia, crown, uniform, salute, etc.).

The main goals of association in groups can be: 1) Achieving a common goal or resistance to a common threat (unite for or against; 2) Getting a sense of belonging (own need and usefulness) and security.

One of the main added benefits of being a member of a group is the ease of communication with your peers.

The three main characteristics of intragroup communication are roles, norms, and leadership.

Roles are a way of behaving that is considered appropriate for a particular situation (group of situations); script of behavior (written by parents, teachers, friends, party comrades, etc.).

Roles are manifested in the process of communication, in discourse as speech action. (The term role is borrowed from the realm of drama and means ‘a piece of text’.)

The individual plays many different roles in life.

According to Dimbleby and Burton, the following types of roles can be distinguished:

1) Age (child, teenager, boy / girl, adult, old man).

2) Sexual (clearly manifested when the usual characteristics of the role are violated, for example, hugs and kisses for men and women, and the traditional threefold kiss for former communist leaders).

3) Class roles. It is generally accepted that there are behavioral stereotypes among the upper, middle and lower class).

According to the American psychologist B. Tuckman, communication processes in the formation of a group go through four stages:

1) the stage of formation (singling out a leader, setting tasks, communication rules),

2) stage of protest (conflict of individuals and subgroups, rejection of the leader and attitudes),

3) the stage of norm setting (the emergence of a stable structure of the group, its norms, mutual grinding of members),

4) the stage of cooperation (overcoming interpersonal friction, solving common problems).

The process of forming a group takes place in a dialogue between a person and another person, or - a person and a total person, if the team has already taken shape and a new member joins it.

The basis for the formation of a group is mutual concession, here a consensual sphere of interests and actions is formed (according to Maturana).

The leader has informal power in the group, unlike the official leader. There can be several leaders in one group. In addition, they may change. The group is managed through leaders. The same leader can behave differently in a group.

There are the following types of leaders:

1) authoritarian - a leader who is characterized by the following features of behavior in relation to subordinates: authoritativeness, the desire to single-handedly make all decisions, impose his opinion on others, while exerting a psychological impact on them; ignoring them as individuals, avoiding personal relationships with dependent people, using orders and submissions as the main methods of work.

2) democratic - the predominance of respect for subordinates, recognition of the right of others to their opinion, communication with subordinates as equals, appeal to others - with requests and advice, and not with orders and instructions.

3) liberal - the type of leadership, when the leader gives subordinates complete freedom of action, when there is a lack of any control, when subordinates are empowered and make any decisions (up to the removal of the leader's leadership).

4) bureaucratic - preference is given to formal bureaucratic methods of management, i.e. power and authority is maintained by bureaucratic methods.

5) opinion leader - a person whose opinion is most listened to by others.

6) nominal leader - a person who leads the group only formally, but his opinion is not listened to. Instead of him, the group is either led by another, or no one is in charge.

7) a people-oriented leader - a leader for whom the main thing in his activity is the well-being of the people who make up the group.

8) work-oriented - a leader for whom the main thing in managing a group is to solve the problem facing the group.

9) charismatic leader - a leader endowed by nature with leadership qualities.

10) situational leader - a leader who becomes such for a while, depending on the circumstances.

The typology of leaders is determined by their preferred leadership style. In addition, the leadership style is characterized in accordance with the personal characteristics that it demonstrates in dealing with people. Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish between three main leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and liberal. Recently, such leadership styles as combined and flexible have begun to be distinguished.

A combined leader is a leader who uses elements of the three main leadership styles (authoritarian, democratic, liberal) in managing a group.

An agile leader is a leader who uses a combination of the three main leadership styles, but all the time - depending on the circumstances - one of them predominates.

Communication in a group can be divided into informative (exchange of information between members of the group) and constitutive (aimed at maintaining relationships, at maintaining the group itself).

The rules of communicative behavior in a group include:

1) Mutual recognition of the status of group members;

2) Public evaluation of the achievement of others;

3) The ability to defuse the situation in time (joke, anecdote);

4) Ability to express agreement with group ideas, actions and decisions.

5) Ability to offer the necessary information and ideas to the group;

6) The ability to evaluate the proposed ideas and information so as not to offend the other).

7) The ability to encourage others to express their opinion and provide the necessary information;

8) Ability to integrate various ideas and information;

9) Ability to propose a plan of joint action.

The tone of the speech may vary, but a democratic, deliberative tone is preferred, although in some cases people even expect to be ruled and welcome dictatorial manners.

Mass communication.

Mass communication is a system consisting of a source of messages and their recipient, interconnected by a physical channel for the movement of messages. These channels are: A) printing (newspapers, magazines, brochures, books of mass publications, leaflets, posters); B) radio and television - a network of broadcasting stations and audiences with radio and television receivers; C) cinema, provided with a constant influx of films and a network of projection installations; D) sound recording (a system for the production and distribution of records, tapes or cassettes); video recording.

According to the definition of the domestic scientist B. Firsov, "mass communication is the process of disseminating information using technical means (press, radio, cinema, television) to numerically large dispersed audiences."

B. Firsov distinguishes three phases in the process of communication: 1) pre-communicative, 2) communicative and 3) post-communicative.

The first phase is characterized by the needs and expectations of the audience. The second is the direct implementation of these requests. The third is the use of the information received.

The main function of mass communication is to ensure the relationship between the elements of the community (individuals, social groups, classes) and between the communities themselves in order to maintain the dynamic unity and integrity of a given social entity.

Mass communication, by disseminating information about facts, events, social and cultural values ​​of both international and regional nature, realizes its main function, solving the following social tasks: A) Creates and maintains a common "picture of the world". B) Creates and maintains a "picture of a separate community." C) Passes on the values ​​of culture from generation to generation. D) Provides a mass audience with entertaining, tonic information.

Mass communication is the systematic distribution of messages among numerically large, dispersed audiences with the aim of influencing the assessments, opinions and behavior of people.

Means and prerequisites of mass communication.

The main media of mass communication are print, radio, film and television, which are also defined as mass media.

The material prerequisite for the emergence of mass communication in the first half of the 20th century was the creation of technical devices that made it possible to quickly transfer and mass replicate large amounts of verbal, figurative and musical information.

Collectively, the complexes of these devices, serviced by workers of high professional specialization, are usually called "mass media and propaganda" or "mass communication media".

The effectiveness of mass communication is determined not only by the goals and objectives of influencing readers, listeners, viewers of transmitted messages, but also by the correspondence of their content and form to the constant and current information needs of people.

According to Lazarsfeld and R. Merton, mass communication is a stream of communicative actions with the aim (in addition to purely informational, educational purposes): 1) assigning a status to social problems, individuals, organizations and social movements; 2) strengthening social norms; 3) unintentional transformation of people's energy from active participation to passive knowledge.

Charles Cooley understood communication as the mechanism by which all diverse human relationships are carried out and developed, the symbols contained in the mind, as well as the means for transmitting them in space and preserving them in time.

Models of mass communication.

The Lasswell model: "who said what, through what channel of communication, to whom, with what result."

Applied communication models are models that track the components of the communication chain in order to predict new effective communication actions.

Applied communication model according to Shannon:

1) technical - the accuracy of information transfer from the sender to the recipient.

2) semantic - the interpretation of the message by the recipient in comparison with the original meaning.

3) effectiveness - the results of changing behavior in connection with the transmitted message.

Shannon also identified five models of mass communication: 1) Source of information; 2) Transmitter; 3) transmission channel; 4) Receiver and final destination; 5) Arranged in a linear sequence (linear model).

In the future, the model was revised in order to meet the needs of other areas of research related to other types of communication. The revised model included six components: source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, and sink. These terms have also been used metaphorically in other communication systems, with varying degrees of success.

In addition to these terms, Shannon also introduced the concepts of noise (entropy) and redundancy.

Entropy (noise) in communication theory is associated with those external factors, which distort the message, violate its integrity and the possibility of perception by the receiver.

Negentropy (negative entropy) is associated with those cases when an incomplete or distorted message is nevertheless received by the receiver due to its ability to recognize the message, despite distortions and missing information. The concept of redundancy, repetition of message elements to prevent communicative failure, that is, a means against entropy, is most often demonstrated precisely on the example of natural human languages. It is believed that all languages ​​are about half redundant: you can ink half the words of a text or erase some of the words in a radio speech, and still be able to understand them. Of course, there is a limit of acceptable noise, beyond which the possibility of understanding is sharply reduced. It is especially difficult to understand in noisy conditions a message using an unfamiliar code).

Norbert Wiener (father of cybernetics) supplemented Shannon's model with the concept of feedback. The model has become more dynamic.

To make the communication model more relevant to the needs of fields other than telegraph, other dynamic theories of communication have been put forward. For example, the psychologist Theodore M. N'kom developed a more mobile model of communication that reflected the interaction of the participants in the communicative act, especially in relation to their cognitive, emotional and artistic aspects.

McLuhan defined mass communication as primarily visual. In his opinion, the transmission channel largely determines the message itself.

Jacobson model.

In the communication model according to Jacobson, the addresser and the addressee participate, from the first to the second a message is sent, which is written using a code. The context in the Jacobson model is associated with the content of the message, with the information transmitted by it, the concept of contact is associated with the regulatory aspect of communication.

Unlike Jacobson, Saussure proposed to study communication in context - in and for itself.

M.M. Bakhtin put forward the following ideas for understanding communication:

1) a necessary feature of any statement is its addressing, addressing, that is, without the listener there is no speaker, without the addressee there is no addresser;

2) any statement acquires meaning only in the context, at a specific time and in a specific place.

According to R. Barth, the word has no meaning, the word is only the possibility of a meaning that receives it in a specific text. Moreover, each new reading of the text creates a new meaning, the reader, as it were, writes his own text again.

The French researcher of Bulgarian origin Julia Kristeva, developing the ideas of Bakhtin and Barthes, proposed the concept of intertextuality: every text is created in the form of a 'quotation mosaic', direct or indirect references to previously perceived foreign texts.

Now Kristeva's idea has been taken up in a wide variety of fields, for example, in the study of the language of cinema, in psychoanalysis, in the study of advertising.

Conditions for the functioning of mass communication (according to Konetskaya).

1) mass audience (it is anonymous, spatially dispersed, but divided into interest groups, etc.);

2) social significance of information;

3) the availability of technical means that ensure the regularity, speed, replication of information, its transmission over a distance, storage and multi-channel (in the modern era, everyone notes the predominance of the visual channel).

The participants in mass communication are not individuals, but certain collective images, such as: the people, the army, etc.

Interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication is understood as the process of transferring information by a certain source - to another specific target object or members of an identifiable group. These communications are usually carried out in the course of personal interactions, but they may also be carried out using mail, telephone or other electronic means.

Functions of interpersonal communication:

1) Information.

Information - as an exchange between people of various kinds of knowledge and information. In this case, communication plays the role of an intermediary, and is an exchange of messages, opinions, ideas, decisions, which takes place between the communicants. Information exchange can be carried out both for the sake of achieving some practical goal, solving a problem, and for the sake of the communication process itself, maintaining relations between people.

2) Social.

It consists in the formation and development of cultural skills of relationships between people. This function forms our opinions, worldview, reactions to certain events. Thanks to this function, all members of society are provided with the acquisition of a certain level of cultural competence, with the help of which their normal existence in this society becomes possible.

3) Expressive.

It means the desire of communication partners to express and understand each other's emotional experiences. Thus, interpersonal communication always begins with establishing contact between partners. At the same time, it is important not only to communicate the information necessary for communication (introduce yourself), choosing stereotypical verbal statements for this, but also to supplement them with non-verbal means (smile, handshake), which should show our disposition (disinclination) to contact. A bad first impression can ruin a partner's far-reaching plans. The expression of emotions is very important in further communication, when the intended ties between people are strengthened, some kind of joint project is being carried out. It manifests itself in the expression of feelings, emotions in the process of communication through verbal and non-verbal means. They are associated with the chosen style of verbal communication, used non-verbal means of communication. Depending on which method of conveying feelings and emotions is chosen, the expressive function can significantly strengthen or weaken the information function of communication.

4) Pragmatic.

This function allows you to regulate the behavior and activities of communication participants, to coordinate their joint actions. It can be directed both at oneself and at a partner. In the course of this function, it becomes necessary to resort both to encouraging the partner to perform some action, and to prohibiting some actions.

5) Interpretive.

It serves to understand your communication partner, his intentions, attitudes, experiences, states. This is due to the fact that various means of communication not only reflect the events of the surrounding reality, but also interpret them in accordance with a certain system of values ​​and political guidelines (i.e. they evaluate them from different positions). This function is also used to convey specific activities, assessments, opinions, judgments, etc.

It should be borne in mind that all these functions are closely related to each other and are present in one or another combination in any type of communication. In practice, all these functions are manifested to an appropriate degree in different levels interpersonal communication: social role, business and intimate personal.

The social-role level of interpersonal communication is associated with the fulfillment of the role expected from a person and is impossible without knowledge of the norms of the human environment. Communication in this case is, as a rule, anonymous and does not depend on whether it occurs between relatives, acquaintances or strangers.

At the level of business communication, there is joint cooperation, so the purpose of communication at this level is to increase the effectiveness of joint activities. Partners are evaluated in terms of how well they perform their functional duties and solve the tasks assigned to them.

At the intimate-personal level of communication, a person satisfies his need for understanding, sympathy, empathy. Typically, this level is characterized by psychological closeness, empathy, trust.

Features of interpersonal communication;

Interpersonal communication has the following features that make up its specificity as a type of communication.

1) Inevitability and inevitability (explained by the very conditions of human existence - a person as a social phenomenon could not exist without communication, which is his most important need. The irreversibility of interpersonal communication is understood as the impossibility of destroying what has been said (“the word is not a sparrow”).

2) Direct feedback.

3) Interpersonal relationships (the determining factor in the phasing of the process of interpersonal communication. These relationships develop as a result of business and creative contacts - official and informal, as a result of the ability of people to emotionally perceive each other - empathy. It should be emphasized that along with psychological and social factors, a large role in interpersonal relationships is played by the emotional factor.The phasing that is observed in the development of interpersonal relationships (establishment, maintenance, rise, decline, termination and possible resumption) is directly related to the nature of interpersonal communication in terms of its form and content.)

The nature of interpersonal communication.

The nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by the conditions in which communication takes place. This can be anonymous communication - interaction between strangers (in an airplane, auditorium, etc.), functional-role communication (relationships between members of a professional team), personal or intimate communication (in a group of friends, in a family).

Multichannel interpersonal communication.

Multichannel is a specific feature of the actualization of interpersonal communication. In interpersonal communication, it is possible to simultaneously use several channels for transmitting and perceiving information (for example, you can not only hear and see the interlocutor, but also touch him with your hand, catch a smell that can provide additional information about the partner, evaluate the distance between yourself and the partner as an indicator of interpersonal relationship.)

Structural and descriptive models of interpersonal communication.

In structural models, the following are usually distinguished as mandatory components:

1) who transmits the information (sender);

2) what is transmitted (information content);

3) to whom the information is transferred (recipient);

4) how information is transmitted (channel);

5) feedback (direct or indirect).

In descriptive models, two more components are distinguished - the effectiveness of communication and its situational conditionality (environment, number of participants, temporal and spatial characteristics, etc.).

The effectiveness of interpersonal communication.

The effectiveness of interpersonal communication is determined by the results of the actualization of two main socially significant functions - interaction and influence.

These results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication:

a) the type of communicative personalities; b) perception of semantic and evaluative information; c) purposeful influence on each other.

For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the most optimal options for these conditions are: a) compatibility of partners as communicative personalities; b) adequate perception of semantic and evaluative information; c) influence through persuasion.

Of the two types of interpersonal communication - verbal (speech) and non-verbal - non-verbal communication is more ancient, verbal communication is the most universal.

Non-verbal communication.

Body language can reveal a lot about the feelings and intentions of communicators. Human postures are not completely innate: they are acquired in the process of communicating with their own kind. Body language includes five components: A) Gestures (a way to sign use of hands); B) Facial expressions (way of using facial expressions); C) Body position (way to hold ourselves (our body)); D) Proxemics (a way of using space. The distance between the interlocutors depends on the age and gender of the communicants, and on the degree of acquaintance between them); E) Tactile communication (touches, pats, etc. The use of tactile elements of communication indicates mutual relations, status, the degree of friendship between communicants).

Paralanguage and paralinguistic means.

Paralanguage tells how to interpret words, gives additional information to the interpretation.

Paralinguistic means - accompany speech, complement the emotional side of communication (whistle in surprise, sigh in despair, etc.)

Paralinguistic moments include: intonation, tonal level of the voice, for example, loudness - expressing, for example, anger. Paralinguistic means can tell about the momentary state of the interlocutor (calmness, excitement, confidence, fatigue, etc.).

Clothing and appearance (hairstyle, jewelry, cosmetics, etc.) can reveal facts such as the personality of the communicant, his or her social status, role, work.

verbal communication.

Verbal communication is the most researched type of human communication. Speech (verbal) communication has a complex multi-tiered structure (from the differential feature of the phoneme to the text and intertext) and appears in various stylistic varieties ( various styles and genres, colloquial and literary language, dialects and sociolects, etc.). All speech characteristics and other components of a communicative act contribute to its (successful or unsuccessful) implementation. When speaking with others, we choose from a vast inventory of possible means of speech and non-verbal communication. speech communication those means which seem to us most suitable for expressing our thoughts in a given situation. This is a socially significant choice. This process is both endless and infinitely diverse.

Communicative characteristics of speech.

From the point of view of communication theory, speech is included in a single communicative act and exhibits the following properties: A) Speech is part of the communicative culture and culture in general; B) Speech contributes to the formation of the social role of the communicant; C) With the help of speech, mutual social recognition of communicants is carried out; D) Social meanings are created in speech communication (for example, in the context of understanding Russian speech turns by foreigners).

Communication skills;

(Communicative goals; Communication strategy; Communication tactics; Communication intention (task); Communication experience.)

The behavior of communicants in the process of communication pursues certain goals.

The communicative goal (according to E.V. Klyuev) is the strategic result, to which the communicative act is directed. To declare impeachment, file for divorce, assume obligations for after-sales service - these are the key speech components of communicative behavior in this situation, realizing one or another communicative intention of the individual communicator to carry out some action through a communicative act or with its help.

A communicative strategy is a part of a communicative behavior or communicative interaction in which a series of different verbal and non-verbal means used to achieve a specific communication goal.

Communicative tactics - a set of practical moves in the real process of speech interaction. Communicative tactics - a smaller scale of consideration of the communicative process, in comparison with the communicative strategy. It does not correspond to a communicative goal, but to a set of separate communicative intentions.

Communicative intention (task) is a tactical move, which is a practical means of moving towards the corresponding communicative goal.

E.V. Klyuev offers the following scheme to understand the relationship between the elements of strategy and tactics in the communicative process: “using communicative competence, the speaker sets a communicative goal (defining or not defining a communicative perspective, that is, the ability to cause the desired consequences in reality) and , following a certain communicative intention, develops a communicative strategy that is transformed into a communicative tactic (or not transformed, or transformed unsuccessfully) as a set of communicative intentions (tasks), replenishing the speaker's communicative experience.

Communicative experience is understood as a set of ideas about successful and unsuccessful communication tactics, leading or not leading to the implementation of appropriate communication strategies.

Characteristics of the main types of communicators:

A) Dominant communicator (strives to seize the initiative, does not like being interrupted, harsh, mocking, speaks louder than others).

B) Mobile communicator (easily enters into a conversation, moves from topic to topic, talks a lot, interestingly and with pleasure, does not get lost in an unfamiliar communication situation).

C) Rigid communicator (experiences difficulties in the initial phase of establishing contact, then clear and logical).

D) Introverted communicant (does not strive to take the initiative, gives it away, is shy and modest, constrained in an unexpected situation of communication).

Intergroup communications.

Intergroup communications - relations between different social groups of people (not only small, but also large).

The sphere of intergroup communications - (according to V. Ageev) - affects communications not only by large, but also by small social groups. Among the main topics of such research is the study of the processes of perception and understanding of each other by representatives of different social groups (intergroup social-perceptual processes). In this case, the social group acts as a subject and an object of perception on the part of representatives of other social groups.

A feature of intergroup communication is its integrity (in comparison with interpersonal communication). (for example, common to a particular social group - attitudes, beliefs, stereotypes, etc.)

Intergroup communication differs from interpersonal communication also in greater stability, stability, and inertness. And it is also valuable, and reflects mainly social relations between groups, while interpersonal - is based on the personal relationships of the relevant people.

The main phenomena of intergroup communication are intergroup warning and ingroup favoritism, and both of these phenomena are functionally interconnected.

Intergroup prejudice is manifested in the fact that members of one social group, socially and psychologically separating themselves from representatives of other social groups, treat them differently than they treat members of their own social group. (They consider their own group to be the best, and other groups to be inferior to it).

Ingroup favoritism is the other side of ingroup bias. It manifests itself in the fact that in most cases the members of the group prefer "their own", i.e. members of their own group. (“Aliens” are in the background, deprived of the privileges enjoyed by members of their social group.)

Channels of interpersonal and intergroup communications.

The channels of interpersonal or group communications are the system of communication or information exchange between its members that has developed in the group (i.e., members of the group can exchange the necessary information with each other, interact with each other in joint activities).

There are different systems of communication channels in the group.

Centralized structures of communication channels - one of the group members is always at the intersection of all directions of information transfer or interaction of group members, is in the center of everyone's attention and plays a major role in organizing group activities. (Through such a person in the group, interactions and exchange of information between other members of the group are carried out.)

There are three variants of the centralized structure: frontal, radial and hierarchical.

Frontal structure - participants are directly next to each other, which allows them to take into account each other's behavior in joint activities.

Radial communication structure - participants in joint activities cannot directly perceive, see or hear each other and are able to exchange information or interact only through one person who occupies a central position in the group.

Hierarchical structure - there are several levels of subordination of group members. At the same time, interpersonal communication of each member of the group is limited, and communications between them are carried out with people located nearby (related to the same level of subordination).

The distribution of roles is a set of rights and obligations, in accordance with which interaction is organized and the relationship of group members with each other is built. Each group has its own role structure. It represents the composition of social roles and their individual distribution among members of the corresponding group.

Leadership refers to the relationship of leadership - subordination. Such relationships develop between the leader of the group and the rest of its members. The same members of the group perform different functions in it and occupy an unequal position in the systems of relations characteristic of it.

A role is defined as a normatively set and collectively approved pattern of behavior expected from a person who occupies a certain position in a group (performing a particular function in it). The role can be established by position, can be chosen by the member of the group (say, the role of leader or jester). Having entered a certain role, a person in the group gradually gets used to it, and other members of the group begin to expect from him behavior corresponding to the role assigned or chosen by him.

The status of a person in a group is a socio-psychological characteristic of his position in the system of intra-group personal and business relationships.

There are different types of statuses: a) elected; b) prescribed; c) acquired; d) sociometric; e) socio-economic.

An elected status is a position that a person has determined for himself, without coercion or pressure from other members of the group.

Prescribed status is a position of a person in a group, determined for him by other people, or a status received by him without any effort on his part, for example, by position or by inheritance.

Acquired - the status that a person has acquired through his own efforts and abilities.

Sociometric is the status of a person, established using a sociometric technique.

The structure of a small social group can also be represented and described through the relationships that develop between members of the group. So, for example, it can be characterized through the business and personal relationships of the members of this group, official and unofficial, coordinating and subordinating.

In order for a group to be entitled to be called a collective, it must comply with high requirements. The team is such a small group in which a system of business and personal relationships has developed, built on a high moral foundation.

(Such relations can be called collectivist. They are defined through the concepts of responsibility, openness, collectivism, contact, organization, efficiency and awareness (RS Nemov)).

Responsibility is interpreted as the voluntary acceptance by the members of the collective of moral and other obligations to society for the fate of each person, regardless of whether he is a member of this collective or not. Responsibility is also manifested in the fact that the members of this team confirm their words with deeds, are demanding of themselves and of each other, objectively evaluate their successes and failures, never leave what they have begun halfway, consciously obey discipline, put the interests of other people on a par with their own. interests, treat the general good in a businesslike way.

The openness of the team is understood as the ability to establish and maintain good, collectivist-based relationships with other teams or their representatives, as well as with newcomers within this team. The openness of a highly developed team is manifested in providing them with versatile assistance to other teams, as well as to non-members of their team, the absence of intra-group favoritism. Openness is one of the most important characteristics by which one can distinguish a real, highly developed team from other social groups that look like it.

Collectivism includes the constant concern of the members of the team about its success, the desire to resist what divides, destroys this team. Collectivism is also good traditions, everyone's confidence in their team. The feeling of collectivism does not allow its members to remain indifferent if the interests of the entire collective are affected. In a real team, all important issues are resolved jointly and, if possible, with a common agreement.

For truly collectivist relations, contact is also characteristic. It is a good personal, emotionally favorable (friendly, trusting and other) relationship between members of the team, including attention to each other, goodwill, respect and tact (tact). Such relationships create a favorable psychological climate in the team, a calm and friendly atmosphere.

Organization is the ability of team members to independently detect and correct shortcomings in work and other group affairs, prevent conflicts and promptly resolve emerging problems. The results of the activities of the team directly depend on the organization.

Awareness - knowledge by members of the team of each other and the state of affairs in the team.

Efficiency - the success of the team in solving the tasks assigned to it.

Collective theories (Bekhterev, Makarenko, Petrovsky, Umansky).

The theory of V. M. Bekhterev about the collective did not emphasize the priority of the collective principle over the individual, society over the individual, did not contain the idea of ​​the dominance of the collective over the individual, and there was no statement about the need for the obligatory subordination of the individual to the collective. All this manifested itself later, and was highlighted in the works of A. S. Makarenko. On the eve of the destruction of the Soviet Union, domestic scientists A. V. Petrovsky and L. I. Umansky created their socio-psychological theories of the collective. A. V. Petrovsky (strato-metric concept of the collective) contrasted the interpersonal relations that exist in a developed Soviet collective with the relationships that exist in any small group identified and discussed in the works of foreign (Western) scientists. L. I. Umansky proposed a similar, “ideologically sustained” understanding of the collective. Among the parameters of the team he singled out, there is, for example, a communist orientation.

Phenomenology of small groups

The phenomenology of small groups is understood as the representation and description of the main phenomena characteristic of small groups. These are phenomena that arise in the sphere of human relationships. The socio-psychological basis of all relations that develop in a group is the values ​​and norms adopted in it. Values ​​are what is valued by the members of this group, what is most significant and important for them. Values ​​can be the goals that members of the group aspire to. From the values ​​follow the norms that develop and operate in a given social group. Group norms are the general rules by which the members of the group are guided in their actions and deeds, as well as in their relationships with each other.

In managing the life of a group, norms perform a number of functions - regulatory, evaluative, sanctioning and stabilizing.

The regulatory function of group norms lies in the fact that they determine (regulate) the behavior of people in the group and outside it, set patterns of interactions and relationships, form the basic requirements for members of the group by its participants.

In the phenomenology of small groups, important research is given to such phenomena as sanctions, group pressure, conformism, cohesion, group compatibility, polarization and leadership. Let's consider these phenomena.

Group sanctions - the impact exerted by the group on its members. If these influences are positive (approval, encouragement, support, protection, acceptance into a group, choice as a leader, etc.), then they speak of positive sanctions.

If the corresponding impacts have a negative connotation (disapproval, disrespect, punishment, deprivation of privileges, exclusion from the group, etc.), then they are called negative sanctions.

Group pressure refers to the influence that a group has on the psychology and behavior of its members. If this influence is significant, then, accordingly, we are talking about the presence of strong group pressure. If this influence is insignificant, then one speaks of a weak group pressure.

A possible consequence of the influence of the group is conformism (the conscious refusal of the individual under the pressure of the group from his opinion).

Group cohesion - the internal unity of the group.

Group compatibility - the ability of group members to act in different situations as a single mechanism.

Group polarization - the existence within a group of small groups with their own opinion (not willing to compromise).

Leadership is the emergence of one of the group members into leaders.

Issues and features of the effectiveness of group activities.

The effectiveness of group activities - how the group copes with the functions assigned to it. It is customary to compare efficiency with the success of the same number of individuals. Accordingly, the group works effectively if the results are higher than those who work independently of each other.

Factors influencing the success of group activities - in terms of significance and logical priority: 1). meaningful (group - as a developed team); 2). formal and general content.

There are three main criteria for the effectiveness of group activities: 1) productivity; 2) quality of work; 3) the positive influence of the group on the individual.

The success of the group is influenced by the task facing the group. The group task determines the structure of interaction between group members in the process of their joint work, and this structure, in turn, affects the results of group work. The individual composition of the group (determined by the psychological characteristics of its members) affects the life of the group through a system of relationships and interactions that characterize the level of socio-psychological development of the group as a collective. With the same composition, a group can be psychologically compatible and incompatible, efficient and inoperable, cohesive and disunited. Highly developed groups with significant individual psychological differences among group members are better than homogeneous ones in coping with complex problems and tasks. Due to differences in experience, approaches to solving problems, points of view, thinking, perception, memory, imagination, etc., their participants approach the same problems from different angles. As a result, the number of ideas, options for proposed solutions increases and, consequently, the probability of an effective solution to the problem at hand increases.

The heterogeneity of the composition of the group, if it is poorly developed, makes it difficult for mutual understanding and the development of a common position. Under such conditions, the heterogeneity of the composition of the group leads to contradictions and conflicts in the sphere of personal relationships.

For the orderly activity of the group, it is advisable:

1) divide into subgroups consisting of people who are psychologically compatible with each other,

2) ensure coordination of actions and distribution of responsibilities (division of labor) between subgroups within this group.

Advantages of leadership styles depending on the nature of the groups:

1) For a group approaching the level of development of the team (having self-governing bodies and capable of self-organizing activities), collegial forms of leadership will be more effective, suggesting a democratic, and in some situations even a liberal leadership style.

2) In groups that are at an average level of development, the best results will be given by a flexible leadership style that combines elements of directiveness, democracy and liberalism.

3) In underdeveloped groups that are not ready for independent work, incapable of self-organization and having complex, conflicting interpersonal relationships, a directive leadership style with elements of democracy is preferable.

The directive style as a temporary measure can also be useful in medium-developed groups when they work in difficult situations: a new task, lack of time, unexpected and significant changes in the composition of the group, requiring a difficult and urgent redistribution of responsibilities, etc. Important for the successful work of the group have personal relationships. The success of the group depends on the form of organization of its activities.

Forms of organization: 1) Collective-cooperative (organized on the basis of interaction and interdependence of group members in work); 2) Individual (based on the independent work of each); 3) Coordinated (everyone works independently, but correlates the process and results of their work with the activities of the other members of the group).

The choice of one or another form of organization of joint labor is determined by two factors:

The challenge facing the group

And the level of its socio-psychological maturity.

In most cases, with the exception of some types of complex creative work, preference is given to the collective-cooperative form of organizing joint activities.

(It has the maximum effect, best mobilizes the intellectual, emotional and physical resources of the group members, improves the ability to perceive, process information and make optimal decisions. This form of work organization is better than others to prevent erroneous decisions).

In complex creative work, individual and coordinated forms of organizing joint activities are preferable, sometimes combined with a collective-cooperative form of labor organization.

The process of making group decisions.

One of the main tasks that groups in most cases solve better than individuals is decision-making on complex issues (when you need to collect and analyze from different angles, weigh and evaluate a large amount of information, and also find as many different solutions as possible.

The group discussion method is especially useful when discussing problems, when making decisions on issues on which there is no consensus, there cannot be a single correct point of view. The meaning of the collective discussion of such issues is not to necessarily come to their unambiguous solution, but to understand the essence of the issue, discuss it from different sides and find its possible solutions, evaluate and weigh each of them. The main thing in group discussions is that group members learn to reason logically, clearly state and defend their opinions with arguments, convince and listen to others (that is, they learn to interact effectively with other people).

A. Osborne proposed a form of organizing the process of making group decisions, called brainstorming.

The brainstorming technique is based on the following:

1. Selection of a limited number of participants in the discussion group (only specialists who are well versed in the issue under discussion).

2. A clear distribution of roles between them in the process of group discussion. These are the roles:

Idea generator (one who proposes constructive solutions to the problem under discussion or develops them),

Roles of critics (those who look for and point out the shortcomings of other people's solutions),

Roles of arbitrators (those who seek compromise solutions that take into account the merits and demerits of individual decisions),

The role of systematizers (those who collect and categorize all expressed sentences or points of view.

3. The introduction of clear rules for the interaction of group members in the process of their joint work(group discussion). For example, in the process of discussion, do not go beyond the assigned group role; do not criticize other members of the group as individuals; treat any proposal with attention and respect, no matter how strange it may seem.

4. Phased (programming) group work.

At each stage of the discussion, a well-defined, clearly defined task is solved, and until it is solved, the group does not move on to the next stage of its work.

Another well-known method of organizing a group discussion is called synectics. It was proposed by W. Gordon and literally translated into Russian means “combination of heterogeneous”. In a group working according to this method, special people stand out - sinectors, who are the instigators of a group discussion or its leaders. They are actively involved in the discussion among themselves and try to express as many different (preferably opposite and at first glance incompatible) opinions on the problem under discussion as possible. Other members of the group are included in the discussion of sinectors and try to bring their positions closer (proposed solutions), discard extremes and find a compromise.

Summarizing the various methods of making group decisions, we can say the following:

1. When organizing and conducting a discussion, it is necessary to take into account a number of circumstances on which its success depends. First of all, the members of the discussion group should be explained the goals and objectives of their joint activities, the procedure for the discussion, the time and place of its holding should be determined.

2. In order for the discussion to be concrete, constructive and fruitful, it is necessary to limit the subject of discussion in advance and constantly ensure that during the discussion its participants do not deviate from the given topic.

3. Work in the discussion group should be based on the principles of mutual trust, openness, carried out in an atmosphere of goodwill, in which even the most extravagant and strange opinions are not immediately discarded, do not cause a negative reaction or remarks that degrade the personal dignity of the author.

The psychologically correct organization of a group discussion includes several consecutive stages of work (Nemov R.S. and Altunina I.R.)

1. Formulation and clarification of the essence of the issue under discussion (this must be done even before the group discussion begins).

The question should be formulated in such a way that it is unambiguously understood by each participant in the discussion. At this stage, several of the most prepared members of the group participate in the activities of the group, who know the essence of the issue better than others, are able to assess the possibility of solving it in the group and accurately formulate the task of the discussion. The number of participants here should be small, for example, three to five people, so that you can quickly come to a consensus.

2. Expression of alternative ideas about the ways and means of solving the issue under discussion.

At this stage of group work, all members of the group participate in it. There must be a leader in the group at this time. He tries to conduct business in such a way that each member of the group has the opportunity to make as many different proposals as possible in resolving the issue under discussion. Evaluation and criticism of proposals made at this stage of group work is not allowed. All incoming proposals are recorded, systematized and presented in the form of a brief summary to the whole group at the end of this stage of the discussion.

3. Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each of the proposals received at the previous stage.

The group members consistently evaluate each proposal, express their criticisms and note its merits. All criticisms should concern only the essence of the proposals under discussion, but not their authors. Personal criticism affecting the personality of the authors of the proposals is not allowed.

4. Weighing all the pros and cons of the proposed options for solving the problem under discussion.

At this stage, again, as at the beginning, a small group of the most competent participants gathers. They consider the proposals received along with the arguments "for" and "against" each of them, choose the most successful - the best of them, finalize it, supplementing it, if necessary, with positive aspects that are available in other proposals.

Based on the best of the selected proposals, a program is further developed and an action plan is drawn up.

In order for the group discussion to be successful, special attention should be paid to the selection and training of the facilitator. This role requires special skills and abilities, but it does not allow active intervention in what is happening. The leader in the process of group discussion should only follow the course of the discussion, analyze and evaluate it, weigh the correctness of the arguments and facts given by the participants, the correctness of their behavior, the degree of achievement of the goal that the group has set. From time to time, the facilitator takes the floor and shares his thoughts with the rest of the group discussion participants. When engaging in conversation with them, he should carefully avoid personal criticism and express his thoughts precisely and concisely. The leader of the discussion almost always has some useful ideas for discussion, but he should not rush to express them. In order for the discussion not to stop when the opinions of the participants differ, the facilitator must be able to direct the conversation in time so as to reach at least agreement on the issue under discussion and continue its discussion. Concluding the discussion, the facilitator once again draws the attention of its participants to the results of the discussion. They can be differences in opinions, positions, their change that occurred as a result of the discussion, measures that need to be resorted to in the future to find better solutions to the problem, to bring the positions of the participants even closer. The facilitator then summarizes the discussion.

An important final point in organizing and conducting a group discussion of problems, increasing the effectiveness of a group discussion is the evaluation of its results.

Mass media (MSK) and Mass media system (media).

The concept of QMS and the media.

Mass communication is the systematic dissemination of information through print, radio, television, cinema, sound and video recording in order to assert the spiritual values ​​of society and to exert an ideological, political, economic or organizational impact on people's assessments, opinions and behavior.

Mass media - a means of disseminating information, characterized by: 1) appeal to a mass audience; 2) public accessibility; 3) the corporate nature of the production and dissemination of information.

Types of QMS (media).

QMS includes: - press, radio, television; - cinematography, sound recordings and video recordings; - videotext, teletext, billboards and panels; - home video centers combining television, telephone, computer and other communication lines.

Publishing house - an enterprise engaged in the preparation, production and release of book and other printed products (documents).

Periodical publication - a serial publication, published: - at certain intervals; - a constant number of issues (issues) for each year; - non-repeating in content, similarly designed numbered and/or dated issues with the same title.

Newspaper - a periodical newspaper published at short intervals, containing official materials, operational information and articles on topical socio-political, scientific, industrial and other issues, as well as literary works and advertising. Usually the newspaper is published in the form of large sheets (strips).

Journal - a periodical journal publication: - containing articles or abstracts on various socio-political, scientific, industrial and other issues; - literary and artistic works; - having a permanent heading; - officially approved as a magazine publication. The journal may have appendices.

Digest - a periodical that reprints materials from other publications, adapting them to the interests and educational level of a wide audience.

Corporate Edition - corporate newspaper or a magazine, allowing: - to communicate to the general public without distorting the position and opinion of the company; - inform the public about their achievements and plans. In addition, corporate publications are an effective tool for shaping corporate culture.

Conditions for the functioning of mass media.

Such conditions include the following:

1) the availability of technical means that ensure the regularity and replication of mass communication;

2) the social significance of information, which contributes to increasing the motivation of mass communication:

3) a mass audience, which, given its dispersal and anonymity, requires a carefully thought-out value orientation;

4) multi-channel and the possibility of choosing communication means, providing variability and, at the same time, normativity of mass communication.

Let's analyze each point in more detail.

1) Technical means.

Among the technical means that provide communication, it is customary to distinguish between the media (mass media), the means of mass influence and the actual technical means. The media include periodicals (press), radio and television. The means of mass influence include cinema, theater, circus, all spectacular performances and fiction. Media - different periodicity. The means of mass influence are characterized by the frequency of appeal to a mass audience. Technical means of communication (telephone, teletype, etc.) do not have a mass coverage of the audience, and the transmitted information may be of a purely personal nature, not related to socially significant realities.

The European press has been counting down the time since the 17th century. (first appeared commercial newspaper). The first newspaper in the United States - in 1833. Radio as mass media - 75 years. Television - a little over 50.

TV.

Unlike the film (cinema - as a prototype of TV), TV shows do not have integrity and completeness, the narrator (communicator) is identified and easily recognizable, has a permanent audience, which at the same time has a choice (can switch the channel). The greatest difference in a number of features is noted between the press (as a channel of written communication) and radio, as well as television as channels of oral communication. (For example, the situational presentation of information in a television program eliminates ambiguity. The dynamics of information transmission, the effect of complicity, and the degree of completeness of feedback are also different.)

The media provide regularity and replication of information and, due to this, are a powerful mechanism for influencing a mass audience. Television, like radio, has the ability to implement mediated interpersonal communication, including popular interviews and conversations in programs of various kinds. Teletext and videotext are offered for intrapersonal communication.

Computer video games and programs are intended for individual use, as are video discs using laser technology.

The emergence of new means of mass communication expands the functions of the media in the following areas: 1) decentralization - the choice of a program depends on the individual, 2) an increase in the volume of information programs (thanks to cable and satellite television), 3) the possibility of interactivity - interaction through feedback for information exchange.

2) The social significance of information.

The attractiveness of the media to a mass audience. The content of mass communication has an impact on the audience in various aspects (training, persuasion, suggestion, etc.). The impact of information depends on how it corresponds to the social needs of the audience and on the regularity of the broadcast. Along with the social relevance of semantic information, evaluation information is of great importance. The recipient of information voluntarily or involuntarily "expects" evaluative information. It is the assessment information to a large extent contributes to the formation of public opinion.

3) Mass audience

as a component of mass communication, it is characterized by heterogeneity, dispersal (on a territorial basis) and anonymity. The individuals who form this audience are considered as individuals included in the network of real social relations and connections. It is with the help of mass communication that these individuals can establish and maintain relationships and connections not only within their social group, but also with the wider social environment.

4) Methods and means of mass communication.

There are the following ways: a) orientation; b) multi-channel; c) normativity; d) variability of communication means.

In the past, mass communication was unidirectional. With the introduction of letters and calls from readers, listeners and viewers, it became mutually directed (mutual interest).

Noteworthy is the so-called. hidden feedback (characteristic of radio and television). An experienced communicator can predict the reaction of the listener or viewer to this or that information and its evaluative interpretation.

The effect of complicity in the process of communication is the stronger, the better this hidden feedback is carried out. This is achieved through thoughtful structuring of the speaker's discourse, providing for a sequence of information, and through careful selection of communication means - words, communication formulas, stereotypes of speech behavior, including phonation and kinetic means of non-verbal communication. (example - the program "Two against one").

In mass communication, the degree of social mediation differs. Live TV programs (reports, interviews) are directly directed. Prepared and edited TV shows are socially mediated.

Mass communication is multichannel. The following channels are used: A) visual, B) auditory, C) auditory-visual channels. The main difference between them lies in the predominant use of written or oral forms of communication.

Traditionally, the press typically uses a common literary written language - book words, terms. For radio and television, it is typical to use forms of oral communication, including elements of colloquial speech. However, it is difficult to establish a strong correlation between the features of oral and written speech and types of media, since radio and television programs are pre-processed as written texts and inevitably retain the features of written speech; on the other hand, the use of dialogues in the press allows the use of elements of colloquial speech. functional style due to the communicative sphere, determined by the subject of information, the social role of the presenter and his social orientation to a certain social group of potential audience. Programs for youth or professional groups differ in vocabulary, the design of statements from programs designed for a mass audience.

Traditionally, mass communication is viewed as indirect communication - through the media, since direct communication (direct contact of the speaker with the audience) involves a large, but not mass audience. This explains why, of the two basic functions of communication - interaction and impact - in mass communication, it is impact that comes to the fore. Within the framework of this basic function, a number of private functions such as social control, contact, etc. are considered, which can be combined into three main socially significant functions of mass communication - informational, regulatory and cultural

Functions of mass media.

In 1948, the American scientist G. Lasswell singled out three functions:

1) Review of the surrounding world (information function).

2) Correlation with the social structures of society (impact on society and its knowledge through feedback).

3) Transfer of cultural heritage (cognitive-culturological function, the function of the continuity of cultures).

In 1960, the American researcher K. Wright added one more function - entertaining.

In the early 1980s, McQuail proposed another function, the so-called mobilizing one, referring to the specific tasks that mass communication performs during various campaigns, more often political ones.

In domestic psycholinguistics (Leontiev A.A.) there are four functions typical of radio and television communication:

1) optimization of the company's activities by focusing on social communication, which makes it possible to change the collective (joint) activity;

2) the function of contact, which plays a role in the formation of group consciousness:

3) the function of social control through the use of social norms, ethical and aesthetic requirements;

4) the function of socialization of the individual - the educational function of instilling in the personality those traits that are desirable for society.

The information function is to provide the general reader, listener and viewer with up-to-date information about a wide variety of fields of activity: business, scientific and technical, political, legal, medical, etc. Receiving a large amount of information, people not only expand their cognitive capabilities, but also increase their creative potential. Knowing the information makes it possible to predict your actions, saves time.

The regulatory function has a wide range of impact on the mass audience, from establishing contacts to controlling society. In this function, mass communication influences the formation of public opinion and the creation of social stereotypes.

The recipient of information has the opportunity to compare various social situations that are commented on by the media either with a positive or negative assessment. (as a rule - if the information is from the media, especially the central TV channels - then it is positive).

Culturological function - contributes to society's awareness of the need for the continuity of culture, the preservation of cultural traditions. With the help of the media, people get acquainted with the characteristics of different cultures and subcultures. This contributes to the integration of society. The concept of mass culture is connected with this function: A) as a desire to acquaint the broad masses with the achievements of world art; B) low artistic level entertainment programs- as the education of bad taste among consumers of mass culture.

Theories of mass media (foreign; domestic).

The beginning of mass communication research is associated with the name of M. Weber (1910)

The available theories can be grouped into three groups: 1) the function of political control, 2) the function of mediated spiritual control, 3) the cultural function.

The theory of the “information society” stands apart, within the framework of which the role of mass communication is explored.

Let's take a look at these theories.

1) The function of political control.

There are two subgroups.

a) Political-economic theory (the postulates of Marxism are used most consistently, it puts forward the role of economic factors that determine the functions of the media in the first place.)

b) The theory of "hegemony" and the theory of mass communication, built on the basis of Marxist methodology.

The theory is based on the position on the self-sufficiency of ideological factors as social incentives for the development of society, depending not so much on economic or structural criteria, but on the mechanisms of influencing the consciousness of the masses. The huge role of the media is emphasized due to their regularity and the possibility of influencing people in an indirect, hidden form.

The Soviet sociological school based on the Marxist-Leninist methodology developed the theory of mass communication as a type of social communication. One of the postulates of this theory is the position according to which mass communication is realized only when people have a pronounced commonality of social feelings and a common social experience. The most significant studies of the social aspect of mass communication were carried out under the leadership of B.A. Grushin - studied the influence of the media on the formation of mass consciousness and public opinion. Under the leadership of B.M. Firsov, studies were carried out mainly on the material of television.

In the second group, the most significant are the theories developed on the basis of the methodology of structural functionalism. Structural-functional theories go back to the sociological theory of action by the American sociologist T. Parsons, the creator of the system-functional school in sociology, to a large extent based on the position of the American sociologist R. Merton, according to which all actions in society are conditioned by its needs. Ideological factors are not significant in this case. The media are seen as a self-organizing and self-controlled subsystem, functioning within the established political rules.

The most important functions of mass communication include: 1) informational, 2) interpreting, ensuring the continuity of the dominant culture, 3) entertaining, 4) mobilizing people to take action during various campaigns.

The theories of the third group are characterized by a sociocultural approach to understanding mass communication and the role of the media.

The Frankfurt (late) school in the second period of its activity turned to the problems of the culturological functioning of mass communication. Willingly or unwittingly, representatives of this school retain the Marxist postulate about the importance of a historical approach to the analysis of the factors that determine social relations in society. This is reflected in the formulation and conditions for the implementation of the main task: before studying the reaction of various social groups to information transmitted by the media, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of the position that this or that group occupies in the cultural heritage of a given society.

The critical orientation of this school found the most consistent expression in the works of T. Adorno. Adorno showed: a) the destructive impact of the media on the individual through the spread of stereotypes of mass culture. b) indicated a change in personality types under the influence of television stereotypes,

G. Enzenberger viewed the media as a repressive mechanism that exercises centralization and bureaucratic control, which exacerbates the passivity of the audience.

Birmingham School (started functioning in 1970) - had the opposite view. One of the authoritative representatives is S. Hall. He emphasizes the positive, integrating role of mass culture.

H. McLuhan and A. Mol. (Culturological theory of mass communication - as a new stage of social communication).

McLuhan developed a typology of historically developing cultural systems (oral, written, audiovisual) based on various means of communication. He considered the study of communicative means the main task for understanding their interaction with a person. His observation is interesting that when using "electronic information", we are forced to think not "linearly sequentially" (as we are used to when reading a book), but "mosaic", at intervals. The "mosaic" of culture created with the help of the media was also noted by Mol.

Theories of the "information society". (D. Bell.)

The basis of theories is the concept of post-industrial society:

1) Information is the main source and means of production, as well as its product;

2) the media are a powerful stimulus for the consumption of information and its evaluation;

3) changes in society are not in the content of information, but in the ways and means of its transmission and its further application.

R. Park and C. Cooley considered communication as communication of individuals within a big city, country, and the whole world. At the same time, individuals are torn out of the usual conditions of interaction, they act independently of the social roles assigned to them by society.

The considered theories of mass communication, with all their variability, are mainly focused on the role of the media.

McQuail points out:

A) search for convergence of social and individual use of communications;

B) creation of the concept of correlation of information and culture in terms of their objective capabilities and conditions of functioning;

C) a more thorough analysis of relations in the process of communication in order to balance the practiced transmission of information and the real demands of society;

D) close attention to various technologies and the study of their potential direction in practical use;

E) a more thorough study of the alternative understanding of commercialization and its place in mass communication;

E) revision of the "public interest" in communication and understanding the nature of information as a type of private property and public good (McQuail. 1987. P. 105-106).

The theory of mass communication in domestic research.

Most of the works are devoted to the study of the characteristics of the transmission and perception of information through various channels and the impact of the media on public consciousness, speech behavior and motives for the actions of individuals. Mass communication is considered in line with the problems of philosophy, sociology, psychology, ethnography, linguistics and other humanities. Interdisciplinary areas (psycholinguistics, sociopsychology, sociolinguistics, sociocommunication, etc.) are of the greatest importance for the theoretical and pragmatic aspects of mass communication.

In psycholinguistics, based on the material of speech acts, ways of optimizing speech impact and the possibilities of their modeling are considered (A.A. Leontiev, E.F. Tarasov, Yu. A. Sorokin, N.V. Ufimtseva, etc.).

The substantiation of the two-phase nature of communication allowed a deeper study of the features of the communicative phase, which is associated with the organization of communication itself and communicative units (utterances and discourse), and the post-communicative phase, which is actualized in the form of decisions and specific activities as a kind of reaction to speech influence. Therefore, the problem of motivation in speech influence occupies one of the key places in the theory of mass communication.

The problem of feedback in mass communication is deeply studied by sociopsychology, for which it is important to clarify the psychological conditions that contribute to a change in public consciousness, understanding the connection between the socially significant reaction of the recipient of information and the actual mental structure of his consciousness.

Of considerable interest in this regard is the problem of the connection between the suggestibility of the recipient of information and his intractability to change his attitude or assessment of events. It has been experimentally proven that during a mass reaction to a particular socially significant situation, an individual involuntarily adheres to the assessment of the situation that was projected onto a certain group of the population (“population”) with which he is in solidarity.

In the sociolinguistic aspect, mass communication is studied primarily in terms of the features of the functioning of the language in the conditions of mass communication as a type of social communication. For this purpose, the features of the functional styles of the periodical press (V.G. Kostomarov, A.D. Schweitzer, G. Ya. Solganik, radio and television broadcasts (M.V. Zarva, S.V. Svetana) are studied). The central problem remains the identification mechanism of interaction of social and linguistic factors that determine social differentiation, integration, interference and variability of language in mass communication.

A special problem is the study of the role of oral channels of information transmission in the formation of speech norms (L.P. Krysin). The study of the principles of sociolinguistic measurements of language variability - linguistic, information-content and communicative and the substantiation of the three-part measurement model (S. I. Treskova) is essential for the methodology of mass communication research.

The main distinguishing features of the problems of mass communication in sociocommunication are its functional orientation and close connection with pragmatics. The first feature is explained by the specifics of the communicative process - thought precedes linguistic design, and communicative units (utterance and discourse), unlike linguistic units (words, not to be confused with single-word statements, and phrases), are formed in the process of communication. This feature of the communicative process is associated with the theory of two-phase, in another version of three-phase communication: (pre-communicative) - communicative - post-communicative. Of course, the boundaries between the phases are arbitrary, since the interaction of thought and communicative means of its expression is more complicated. One way or another, when studying mass communication, it is necessary to take into account its functional features.

The second feature is explained by the fact that it is in communication that its two basic functions are actualized - interaction and influence, which are closely related to the pragmatic side of communication.

In sociocommunication, the communicative aspect of mass communication is dominant, and the informational and content aspect occupies a subordinate place - in sociocommunication it is important not so much what, but how, who, to whom. Therefore, one should agree with those researchers who, instead of the traditional term "mass media (media)", use the term "mass media", emphasizing the priority of the communicative aspect.

The socio-communicative problems of mass communication include the following:

1) substantiation of the essence and functions of mass communication; 2) feedback mechanism; 3) modeling of mass communication; 4) the role of sociological dominants in mass communication; 5) the influence of mass communication on the social normativity of speech; 6) the specifics of the press, radio and television as mass media.

Most of these problems are closely related to the pragmatic aspect of the study of mass communication and therefore must be considered from this angle.

Models of mass media.

Model of the "communicative act" G. Lasswell.

G. Gerbner's cultivating theory of communication.

Dynamic model of B. Westley and M. McLean.

Psycholinguistic model of speech influence by A. A. Leontieva.

The study of mass communication in a pragmatic aspect involves, first of all, the identification of a mechanism for a targeted impact on the audience and the individual, as well as the establishment of factors that ensure the expected result.

With all the variety of models, each one contains as mandatory components that were presented in the “communicative act” model developed in 1948 by the American political scientist G. Lasswell.

In this model, communication is presented as a unidirectional, linear process: who informs - what - on what channel - to whom - with what effect. That is, social components are obligatory: A) informational; B) technical; B) psychological.

Communication means are implied. In unidirectional communication, there is no indication of feedback.

After the model was improved by introducing "feedback" - as a mandatory type of relationship between components. As a result, the understanding of the communication process, presented as a closed chain, in which all components are interconnected, has changed. Further improvement was facilitated by the introduction of additional components - sources of information, conditions for the flow of communication, the social composition of the audience, and, finally, language as a means of communication.

In the pragmatic aspect, of interest are those models in which the component that plays the main role in the impact function is defined. The list of such factors was proposed by the American scientist G. Gerbner, the founder of the so-called cultivating theory of communication, according to which mass communication “cultivates” a certain pattern of image (i.e., the socially significant impact of mass communication is determined not by the media themselves, but by certain social strata of society - groups politicians and economists, competing social institutions, advertisers, experts and mass audiences.)

In the Gerbner model, the mediating and main link in the mechanism of reflecting a fact or a real event in a text that is perceived by a mass audience is a communicator (a person or a machine) that composes the author's text. The identity of the real event or fact and the text of the message perceived by the audience depends on what information is selected, how carefully the editing of the text is designed for a specific communication channel, and what communication means are used.

Models B. Westley and M. McLean - under pressure from information sources, the communicator is perceived as the main component of the communication process, affecting the audience. (This is facilitated by the psychological factors of communication through the means of communication.) In this regard, it is useful to refer to the psycholinguistic model of speech influence proposed by A.A. Leontiev (there are two main ways of influencing the audience - informing and persuading.

Informing - the impact is carried out by transmitting information that is completely unknown to the audience and therefore can radically change the opinion or point of view of the recipient of information.

Persuasion - more hard way impact, because it sets the task to change the opinion of the interlocutor or the mass audience without resorting to new information or not having new facts. In this case, a convincing argument is needed, which implies good knowledge given individual and audience.)

The limited feedback in mass communication, according to Leontiev, imposes special requirements on the mass media - to develop an attitude towards the “average listener (reader)” and ensure his interest, since at any moment he can switch, turn off the communication channel or put down the newspaper.

P. Lazarsfeld and G. Godet established in the QMS the presence of a “two-stage flow of communication” (the information transmitted by the media is sent primarily to the “leaders” and the opinion is transmitted to the rest in the process of interpersonal communication.) That is, mass communication - affects indirectly. The identification of the role of interpersonal communication in the dissemination of mass communication information has been called "the rediscovery of the primary group."

Factors of influence of mass communication.

1. Sociological factors contributing to the impact of mass communication.

2. Information factors that determine the effectiveness of mass communication.

3. Communicative factors of mass communication.

4. Features of adequate perception of information. Objective and subjective factors that ensure communication.

Sociological factors:

With a certain degree of conventionality, these factors can be defined as: A) sociopsychological, B) informational, C) communicative.

Sociopsychological factors are associated with such components of mass communication as the communicator and the audience.

To carry out the basic functions of mass communication, the direct sender and recipient of information must meet the general requirements:

1) have a certain minimum of general background knowledge,

2) own a common code - the necessary amount of verbal and non-verbal communicative units,

3) be able to use this code and correctly interpret its units.

4) have motivation - a mutual desire to implement communication, in which targeted information meets the expectations of its recipient.

For a communicator, the main condition for successful communication is the correct social orientation to the potential audience - to the background knowledge and interests of both the mass audience and "small groups". The selection of information, its optimal volume and structure, as well as the selection of verbal and non-verbal communication means depend on this.

Information factors

Information factors are associated primarily with the content aspect of newspaper materials, radio and television programs. Both the sender and the recipient of information are interested in this. The decisive factors are the selection of information, its structuring and ways of expression, taking into account the specifics of the channels. The selection of information is carried out on the basis of two main criteria - relevance and orientation to the social and personal motivation of the audience. The relevance of information is determined by temporal and territorial parameters - how timely it is and how many people need it.

On a territorial basis, up-to-date information can have a global and local character.

The most effective means of expressing tonality, which lend themselves to structuring in radio and television discourses, are intonation, rhythm and tempo (not to be confused with the physical speed of speech). The ratio of intonationally distinguished and non-highlighted components of utterances, the number and alternation of speech measures within utterances, the number and duration of pauses create a certain tonality and expressiveness of speech. The way information is transmitted is largely determined by the genres of oral and written forms of speech, which are largely standardized in each communication channel.

Communication factors

We are talking about the choice of the language code of verbal and non-verbal communication means. The choice of the language code provides for the volume, frequency and variety of communication means depending on the mass communication channel, subject matter, genre of publications and type of radio and television programs. The process of encoding and decoding was studied in the works - A.R. Luria, A.N. Leontiev, A.A. Leontiev, N.I. Zhinkina, I.A. Winter and others.

It is important for the recipient of information to be able to:

1) quickly highlight the subject of information by keywords;

2) correctly interpret the beginning of the message and, therefore, anticipate its development;

3) restore the meaning of the message, despite the missing elements;

4) correctly determine the intention of the utterance (discourse).

These skills are correlated with objective and subjective factors that ensure communication. The objective factors include the external structure of the speech message, in which the introductory part, the main part and the conclusion stand out, and the internal structure that reflects the dynamics of the message (introduction, climax, denouement), the ratio of the part and the whole, etc. The subjective factors include: a) meaningfulness of perception (the relationship between real and described events), b) discreteness of perception (discreteness is associated with the peculiarity of a person to isolate “semantic supports” in the message as a result of dismemberment, analysis and association of the flow of information), c) the conditionality of perception by a person’s past experience, d) leading nature of perception (a person's ability to anticipate the future)

Features of perception are taken into account when preparing information. The most stringent requirements apply to radio and television programs. A typical three-part structure of radio news has strict time limits: an introduction - no more than 35 seconds and no more than four different messages; the main part is 8 minutes long and contains no more than 10 news items; the conclusion, which summarizes no more than four main news items, lasts up to 40 seconds. This structure of radio news is designed for the peculiarities of auditory perception and human memory. Usually, the beginning and end of the radio information is remembered better, and repeating it three times guarantees memorization.

Dialogue is used as an effective communication factor in radio and television programs.

Norms and rules for constructing even individual statements are associated with the peculiarities of auditory perception of information. Syntactic requirements - prescribe the use of short statements with a simple grammatical structure (a direct word order is desirable, which is better perceived "by ear", verbose circumstantial turns are undesirable, since they distract from the main meaning.)

The sound aspect of radio and television information - in addition to the normative pronunciation, the correct distribution of semantic stress, the intonational design of the statement, the general tone of the message that conveys the communicator's evaluative attitude to information, tempo and rhythm are of great importance as the most important characteristics of sounding speech. The ideal condition for adequate perception of information is the coincidence of the tempo and rhythm of the communicator and the personal tempo and rhythm of the listener.

Features of the perception of information by the QMS and the media.

In the scientific literature, the terms "mass media (mass media)" and "mass media (MSK)" are used either selectively, without overlapping, or interchangeably as options. Historically, the concept of the media has developed as an idea of ​​the type of social institution, the dominant characteristic of which is the impact on society through the information function. In their evolution, the media have gone through a number of stages at different rates - “elite” (for a selected audience), mass, specialized (for certain social groups), interactive (the consumer of information chooses the program himself).

The scientific concept of QMS is formed later, in connection with the study of communication methods and the construction of models of mass communication.

The main characteristic of the QMS is the impact on society through the communicative function, which involves the study of the components of the communicative process, their relationship and the interaction of communicative means of various levels in specific situations.

With the help of the mass media, especially on the auditory and audiovisual channels, a wide variety of situations are actualized before the mass audience, which receive either a positive or a negative assessment - people accept a system of social norms of behavior, ethical and moral values ​​that are desirable from the point of view of this society.

The pragmatic typology of the QMS is based on such characteristics as the degree of impact in terms of the integration of society and in terms of the "conversion" of public opinion about social values.

According to the first basis, three types of QMS are distinguished:

A) QMS that do not contribute to the integration of society in a positive way

B) QMS that contribute to the integration of society, both positively and negatively,

C) QMS that contribute to the integration of society in a positive way, but in a differentiated way, depending on the needs of society and the dominant function of the QMS - informational, regulatory, cultural, which correlates with the structural-functional theory of mass communication.

Since the impact of the QMS can be carried out in positive and negative terms, there are two opposite processes - the integration and differentiation of society. In conditions of social stability, this contributes to the improvement of various forms of integration. In conditions of social instability, this is fraught with conflicts and aggravation of mutual misunderstanding both in interpersonal and mass communication.

QMS are able to: 1) cause changes intentionally and unintentionally, 2) cause minor changes in form and intensity, 3) reinforce the existing opinion without changing it, 4) prevent emerging changes, 5) promote emerging changes.

QMS, on the one hand, reflect the ongoing changes in society, on the other hand, they influence these changes with varying degrees of intensity. This interdependence is based on the functional basis of mass communication and is actualized in specific social conditions characteristic of various spheres of human activity.

Consideration of mass communication in a pragmatic aspect.

Mass communication promotes the interaction of people, develops in the individual a sense of belonging to society and creates a sense of personal security. QMS allow an individual to identify himself as a person - to make sure that his understanding of social values ​​is correct, to get acquainted with patterns of behavior, how to “try on” them for himself or, on the contrary, reject them, while maintaining his individuality. This desire for self-knowledge is the key to the development of a harmonious society in conditions of social stability.

The history of the development of the QMS and the media.

1. The transition to printing - as the beginning of the development of mass media (MSK).

1445 I. Guttenberg developed methods for precise casting of metal letters - symbols of letters and typographic printing, and during the second half of the 15th century this technology quickly spread throughout Europe. The development of printing at the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age was an integral part of the formation of the capitalist economy of Western Europe. The church actively supported the development of printing. The first printing houses were created at monasteries. Further - the number of printing houses grew, and the distribution network expanded. Attempts by the state and the church to introduce censorship met with limited success (prohibited materials were published in another province. Thus, censorship contributed to the growth of printing). Printing and book distribution created new communication links and structures (new channels for transmitting information between people), contributing to the establishment of a new type of social relationship. At first, humanity communicated through interpersonal communication (people communicated only when they were together). Book publishing (as a means of mass communication) has expanded the boundaries of communication (communications). So far it has only been limited to printing. With the development of the media, there was a transfer to electronic forms of coding and transmission of information, which means the possibility of informing about events taking place in other regions.

According to the terminology of J. Thompson, there are three types of communication: 1) direct interaction (interpersonal communication "face to face"), 2) indirect interaction, and 3) indirect quasi-interaction.

Direct interaction is built on a two-way information exchange (the communicator is also the addressee, the “recipient” of a message from another participant in the communication act and vice versa.) Direct interaction takes place in the case of direct contact between participants in the communication process who are in the same space-time system. Such communication has the character of a dialogue - and to convey or interpret the semantic content in the process of interpersonal communication, along with words, other symbolic forms are usually used - intonation, gestures, facial expressions, etc.

Mediated interaction - involves the use of auxiliary means that allow people to exchange messages "distant" from each other in spatio-temporal terms. The role of such aids can be, for example, paper in the case of personal or business correspondence, as well as electrical wires, electromagnetic waves and various technical devices in the case of telephone conversation, radio conversations, teleconferences, Internet discussions, etc. Compared to interpersonal communication, mediated interaction is able to "overcome" spatio-temporal localization. Indirect quasi-interaction - special types of social relations that are established as a result of the use of mass media - print, radio, television, etc.

Mediated quasi-interaction involves expanding access to information and semantic content in time and space, symbolic forms are reproduced for an indefinite circle of potential recipients, it is a monologue - in terms of the unidirectional information flow. (The reader, TV viewer, radio listener are in this case the recipients of symbolic forms, the producers of which do not expect to receive a direct and immediate answer.)

The differences between the three indicated types of social interaction underlie the theoretical concepts of J. Meirovich and J. Thompson. Historically, the development of mediated types of communication did not always occur due to the displacement of its interpersonal form. (in some European countries at the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age, it was common to read books aloud for those who were going to listen to the printed word; at present, it is customary to discuss television programs with family or friends.) However, more and more people come into communicative contact with those who is not nearby (i.e. mediated MC prevails over interpersonal).

The future of mass media and mass media (from typography to mass media convergence).

1st revolution (from the appearance of book publishing, and printing houses at the church - to mass publications media), 2nd - the emergence of radio, 3rd - television, 4th - satellite and cable TV, the Internet.

The theory of A. Toffler about “demassification” (that the era of traditional SII is ending. And the era of media oriented to “microaudience” is coming in accordance with the diverse interests and needs of various audience groups. An example is the development of cable and satellite television, offering viewers a choice of dozens of channels specialized in content (news, sports, comedy, popular science, animation, etc.)).

Active development of the Internet (developed by the CIA and the Pentagon) - (200 million in 2000, and 800 million in 2006 - worldwide). The rapid development of electronic media. (Since 2000, all daily newspapers and almost all magazines published in the US have been represented on the Web.) Media Convergence (the convergence and merging of "traditional" media (periodicals, broadcasting and television) when they are transferred to a single digital platform).

Considering the issues of the influence of mass communications on the masses, one should pay attention to the factor of the possibility of introducing installations that are introduced into the subconscious of the masses in the ways, methods and capabilities of mass media. In other words, in the case of such an impact, a kind of programming of the mental consciousness of the masses takes place in accordance with the goals and guidelines emanating from the media controlled by one or another financial group or political party. You can also say that at all times the media have had this kind of impact. The nature of the impact itself depended on certain ideological attitudes. For example, during the existence of a centralized state of the times of the USSR, the media pursued a unified policy in line with the instructions of the party and government. During the collapse of the Soviet Union in the post-Soviet territory, the media for the most part became subject to oligarchic-criminal structures, which means that they introduced into the minds of the masses the attitudes initiated by the owners of big capital. With the coming to power of the country, V.V. Putin, who began to restore order in the country again, the mass media in their bulk ceased to belong to those owners of capital who were interested in the further collapse of the country and the impoverishment of the people. There was a kind of redistribution of property, by changing the owners (examples of NTV, ORT, TVC, a number of large periodicals). D.A. Medvedev, who became the leader of the country after V.V. Putin, announced the continuity of Putin's course. At the same time, in our opinion, one should pay attention to the positive example of the media during the existence of the USSR, when newspapers, magazines, television, etc. - they supported exclusively one ruling course, promoted one political ideology, and thereby contributed to the removal in the psyche of the masses of the symptoms of neurosis caused - as during the coming to power of Gorbachev and Yeltsin - of uncertainty about the future. In addition, the unified media, the media - subordinate to one course, one line of the party, in our opinion, are also noticeably better able to exert a positive influence in the spirit of patriotic education. Which, let us note, in our country, against which, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the active expansion of Western norms and values ​​began, is very relevant.

Among other things, it should be emphasized that the role of the mass media, information and propaganda is actually very important in the factor of ideology. It was ideology that at all times was the course, the formation of the course followed by the masses. Therefore, if one ideology appears in the country, then, firstly, this will significantly reduce the neuroticism of the masses (because, as you know, if a person needs to choose between one and the other, or even the third, this causes unnecessary psycho-emotional tension), and secondly, submission is inherent in human nature. Submitting - the individual relieves stress caused by the likelihood of a struggle, and hence the violation of inner harmony. Whereas unconsciously everyone strives for harmony and unity with others. And here one should really pay attention to the fact that any confrontation (both taken place and just planned) almost certainly causes a certain emotional excitement in the psyche of the individual and the masses (the masses - as a concentration of individuals). Or a kind of neurosis. Whereas in the event that such a variant of the threat (threat to the psyche) can be devalued by any means, the psyche of the individual and the masses responds quite favorably to this fact. And the symptoms of neurosis (and its various manifestations) begin to pass.

2008
© Published with the kind permission of the author

Mass communication is the process of disseminating information (knowledge, spiritual values, moral and legal norms, etc.) using technical means (press, radio, television, etc.) to numerically large, dispersed audiences.

Mass media (MSK) are special channels and transmitters, thanks to which the product spreads information messages over large areas.

Mass communication is primarily characterized by:

• availability of technical means to ensure regularity and replication;
• social significance of information that contributes to increasing the motivation of mass communication;
• The mass character of the audience, which, due to its dispersal and anonymity, requires a carefully thought-out value orientation;
• · multi-channel and the possibility of choosing communication tools that provide variability and, at the same time, normativity of mass communication.

Mass communication plays the role of a regulator of the dynamic processes of the social psyche; the role of an integrator of mass sentiments; channel of circulation of psycho-forming information. Due to this, mass communication organs are a powerful means of influencing both the individual and the social group.

The uniqueness of the communication process in the QMS is associated with its following properties:

• - diachronicity - a communicative property, due to which the message is preserved in time;
• - diatopicity - a communicative property that allows information messages to overcome space;
• - multiplication - a communicative property, due to which the message is subjected to repeated repetition with relatively unchanged content;
• - simultaneity - a property of the communication process that allows you to present adequate messages to many people almost simultaneously;
• - replication - a property that implements the regulatory impact of mass communication.

History of the study of problems of mass communication. The beginning of mass communication research is associated with the name of the German sociologist M. Weber. In 1910, he methodologically substantiated the need to study the press in a sociological aspect, convincingly showing the orientation of the periodical press to various social structures and its influence on the formation of a person as a member of society. He also formulated social demands, which are presented to the journalist, substantiated the method of analysis of the press.

Of great importance for the study of mass communication was the work of W. Lippmann "Public Opinion", published in 1922. According to Lippman, human thinking is reduced to reactions in response to external stimuli. The sum of such reactions, obtained from the experience of previous activities, forms certain stereotypes - illusory constructors in the human mind, replacing reality. Since most people do not have the opportunity to independently investigate and evaluate certain facts, their thinking is based on stereotypes. For the formation and consolidation of stereotypes in the creation of people, superficial assessments of various phenomena or events are sufficient. In the modern world, it is the mass media that create most of the stereotypes, forming the “pseudo-environment” in which most modern people live. Therefore, according to Lippmann, by exploring the complex processes of stereotyping, one can also study the phenomenon of mass communication.

AT further study mass communication was carried out in three aspects - theoretical, pragmatic and experimental-applied.

Known theories are built mainly on a functional approach to understanding the essence of mass communication, the difference lies in the justification of the dominant function and the consequences of its actualization. Despite the many interpretations of mass communication, these theories can be grouped into three groups according to the dominant function: 1) the function of political control, 2) the function of mediated spiritual control, 3) the cultural function. Special place occupies the theory of "information society", within which the role of mass communication is explored. Let us briefly consider these theories in order to highlight the theoretical problems of mass communication and approaches to their solution.

In the first group of theories, in which mass communication is interpreted as a function of political control, as an expression of the concentration of political power, there are two subgroups. In the first subgroup, the dominant factor is material and economic, in the second - ideological. The first subgroup includes the theory of mass society and variants of the theory based on the Marxist understanding of the QMS, primarily as means of production, which in a capitalist society are private property.

The theory of mass society proceeds from the position on the interaction of authoritative and powerful institutions of society, as a result of which the QMS are integrated into these institutions and, as a result, support the political and economic course of power structures. This theory emphasizes the role of the QMS in shaping public opinion. At the same time, the dual role of the QMS is noted: on the one hand, they can manipulate public opinion, on the other hand, they help people survive in difficult conditions. Political-economic theory, which most consistently uses Marxism, puts forward the role of economic factors that determine the functions of the QMS. Political factors are also taken into account, since QMS are in the hands of private owners. The representatives of this theory are the English sociologists G. Murdoch and P. Golding. The political-economic theory also includes the economic-sociological tradition of studying mass communication and the political-sociological direction. The economic and sociological tradition of studying mass communication (J. Wedell, D. McQuail, D. Kellner, T. Vestergaard, K. Schroder) in the process of implementing sociocultural functions informing the audience about events at the local, national and world levels, entertainment, education and enlightenment ) highlights the goals associated with the formation of consumer behavior, stereotypes of perception of economic reality and lifestyle, and also considers the processes of production, distribution and consumption of media products (information, entertainment and sociocultural samples) in society as intangible public or private goods. In this context, the QMS are the "fourth power" in the sense that they do not depend on the traditional three, do not merge with them, but have their own "power" over the minds of people. At the same time, the state can act as an arbiter setting the rules of the game for the participants. market relations producers, television and radio channels, newspapers and magazines, journalists, advertisers, and an independent entity participating on behalf of society in the process of creating public goods produced by the QMS through public media channels. It is in this context that Western scientists are analyzing the trends in the commercialization of QMS, their deregulation and the planned re-strengthening of regulation. Accordingly, the processes of regulating the interaction between the mass media, society and the state are associated by representatives of this direction with the regulation of relations and property rights to mass communication channels. The second subgroup includes the theory of "hegemony" and the theory of mass communication, built on the basis of Marxist methodology. The QMS hegemony theory has a conventional name in which the word "hegemony" is interpreted as the dominant ideology. The impetus for the emergence of this theory was the position of the critical theory of the media as a powerful mechanism capable of implementing changes in society. The most consistent representatives of this theory are the Greek sociologist and political scientist N. Poulantzas, who lived in France, and the French philosopher L. Althusser.

In the second group, the most significant are the theories developed on the basis of the methodology of structural functionalism. The theories of the third group are characterized by a sociocultural approach to understanding mass communication and the role of the mass media. At present, this approach is clearly gaining momentum, which is explained by a new wave of interest in the human person and the general trend towards the humanization of sciences. Theories of the "information society" are singled out in a separate group. The basis of these theories is the concept of a post-industrial society, developed by the American sociologist D. Bell. The most typical postulates of these theories are as follows:

• - information is the main source and means of production, as well as its product;
• - QMS are a powerful stimulus for the consumption of information and its evaluation, they also stimulate communication technologies, thanks to which job vacancies are created (in the USA, up to 50% of employees are somehow connected with the process of preparing, processing and disseminating information);
• - changes in society, "revolutionary potentials" are not in the content of information, but in the ways and means of its transmission and its further application (in other words, it doesn't matter what, but it matters how).

The considered theories of mass communication, with all their variability, are mainly focused on the role of the media. In terms of forecasting, some scientists predict an increase in the differentiation of power over the mass media, a decline in the cultural level of society, since the culturological function is not controlled by anyone, and a weakening of the integration of society, since it will be tied to its local interests. Others, on the contrary, emphasize the advantage of the QMS in conditions of free choice of information, since under these conditions it is possible to avoid the centralized pressure of the QMS, and integration, although narrowed, will be deeper and more stable under the new conditions. This opposition goes back to the difference between the so-called critical and administrative studies, which was substantiated by the American sociologist P. Lazarsfeld as early as 1941.

Lazarsfeld's ideas contributed to the development of the so-called positivist approach to the study of mass communication. According to this approach, the media convey information to the audience through "setting the agenda". Moreover, the media deliberately “inflate” any problem, devoting all their time to it, artificially elevating it above other events, thus constructing a special reality. Mechanisms for constructing artificial reality are the subject of study by representatives of this school.

Mass communication specialist McQuail makes a number of constructive suggestions for theoretical research:

• -search for convergence of social and individual use of communication;
• - creation of the concept of correlation of information and culture in terms of their objective capabilities and conditions of functioning;
• - a more thorough analysis of the relationship in the process of communication in order to balance the practiced transmission of information and the real demands of society.

Behind these proposals, the main problem is how to combine the mass and individual in communication with the greatest benefit for society and the individual, how to avoid the dehumanization of society in the conditions of scientific and technological progress and consumerism.

Practical-applied methods of mass communication research. As for the methods of studying mass communication in a practical-applied aspect, these include: observation of mass-communicative situations and private communicative acts; experiments ("field" and laboratory) with the participants of communication; description of QMS in their historical development and identification of their functions; system-theoretical analysis of communicative acts or the functioning of the QMS in society.

The study of mass communication can also use the methods of various socio-humanitarian sciences, for example, methods of studying focus groups, questioning and polling the audience of the mass media from sociology; methods of conversation with communicators and recipients from sociolinguistics, etc.

A particularly important method of studying mass communication in the metatheory of communication is system-theoretical analysis, which consists of four levels.

At the first level of system-theoretical analysis, the researcher must characterize the structural elements that make up the organization of a particular mass-communicative process or the entire system of mass communication, establish their relationship with the entire structure of a given society. At the second level, establish the mechanism and features of the interaction of elements within the system under study. At the third level, identify the functions of the system under study in relation to the external environment. At the fourth level, put together the typological characteristics of the system under study and establish the meaning and significance of the broadcast and received mass information based on the functions of this system and the scale of its influence on society as a whole.