The printing industry has gone through a complex and centuries-old path of development. The emergence of printing technology (typography) began with the replacement of handwritten reproduction of text and images by printing. The printing press first appeared in the 9th century. (in China and Korea), where a wooden board served as a printing plate, on the surface of which text and images to be reproduced were drawn. Then, gaps were manually deepened (engraved) with a cutting tool, thus obtaining a form of letterpress. To obtain an impression, paint was applied to the printing elements, covered with a sheet of paper and rubbed (creating pressure) with a smooth stick or bone, as a result of which the ink transferred to the paper, forming an impression. This method is called xylography.
The oldest printed edition of the Diamant Sutra appeared in China in 868, and in 972 the sacred Buddhist scripture Tripitaka was printed, containing 130,000 pages. The earliest surviving examples with type signs and images were printed in China as early as 200.
In the middle of the 11th century, a more progressive method of making letterpress text forms appeared in China - by typing - composing them from separate pre-made relief elements (letter from Latin litera - letter), each of which reproduced a separate character of the text. This method greatly accelerated the manufacturing process. printed forms, and also made it easy to correct mistakes made in the form and use letters repeatedly (after printing, the form was disassembled into separate elements). At first, the letters were made from clay, followed by firing, and already from XVB. in Korea they were cast in bronze. Printing from typesetting forms made of metal type appeared in the middle of the XVB. and in Europe.
In the 40s of the XV century. Johannes Gutenberg (Germany) created more than modern way manufacturing letters by casting them from lead, and from one mold - a font matrix - it was possible to produce a large number of letters. The set of characters that make up the typographic font was located in flat boxes (font boxes), from which a set of lines of the printed form was made. Gutenberg also improved the printing process, for which he made a hand-held wooden printing press with a capacity of up to 100 prints / h. The printing device of the machine consisted of two plates: a printing plate was placed on the lower plate, and after ink was applied to it, the paper sheet was pressed against it by the upper plate by means of a screw device.
The 15th century was the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. It was at this time that the Spaniards and the Portuguese, thanks to their sea voyages, expanded the map of the world.
Gutenberg's invention spread rapidly and fundamentally changed the literary world, as the technology for serial production of books and newspapers appeared. The number of printers grew rapidly and in a comparatively short period before 1500 more than 6,000 works were printed. In 1469, the first printing press was put into operation in Venice, and by 1500, more than 400 printers were already working in this city.
Johannes Gutenberg created the basic technology of modern communication media with his method of printing with movable, substituted characters. American journalists in the book "1000 years, 1000 people" (1000 years, 1000 people) called him "the man of the millennium." This development in the field of printing was a prerequisite for the development mass communication, education and democratization. Typography opened a new chapter in the technique of writing and information. The reformer Luther (1483 - 1546) was the first to use this medium to spread his new teaching.
The scientific, technical and social evolution of the following centuries is due to the main means mass media- book.
The printing form for reproducing images was also an engraving (French gravure) on wood. But from the second half of the XV century. For this purpose, the first forms of intaglio printing began to be used - engravings on copper plates. An image was drawn on them and the printing elements were deepened with a cutter. At the beginning of the XVI century. this deepening was carried out with a solution of ferric chloride (on copper plates) and nitric acid on zinc plates. From the beginning of the 17th century multi-color originals began to be reproduced in three colors.
Gutenberg's invention had a great influence on the development of the history of human society, its science and culture. Typography spread rapidly throughout Europe: in Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, Hungary, Spain, the Czech Republic, etc. Over 50 years, more than 1000 printing houses were founded, which published about 10 million copies. books.
Despite the continuous increase in the number of printing enterprises in the world and the growth in the production of printed books, the technique and technology of printing until the 19th century. does not undergo significant changes. It should only be noted the invention (1796) direct flat print- lithography (Greek lithos - stone + grapho - I write), in which the printing plate was made by hand on limestone stone. This method greatly expanded the possibilities of image reproduction.
Thus, only 400 years after the invention of the letterpress printing method by Gutenberg, a new method appeared - a competitor, namely, flat printing and lithography were added. The author of this method was a student lawyer Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), who was also known as a writer. Due to lack of funds, he could not purchase his own printing press and type material, and therefore he looked for alternative, cheaper printing equipment. Zenefelder's main idea was to use the well-known phenomenon of water and fat repulsion. The printing form was made very simply: with the help of chalk or ink based on fat, fonts and images were applied upside down directly onto a flat stone plate, freed from fat. Next, the printing plate is moistened with water and rolled up with grease-based ink. The elements of the stone (typeface, drawing) containing fat perceived the paint, and the areas moistened with water repelled it. The absence of a relief reduced the mechanical stress and increased the run-time of the printing plate. What's more, the print quality has improved, as even the finest details of an image can be reproduced with this method.
Compared to letterpress and gravure printing, this printing method had the following advantages: higher mechanical strength of the flat printing plate, which made it possible to produce higher print runs. The processing of the printing plate was greatly simplified, which gave advantages in speed and cost, and the stones, after the removal of the surface layer, could be reused for new printing plates. However, the use of heavy and brittle stone as a printing plate hindered the further development of this printing method. Therefore, there was a search for a lighter and at the same time more durable material - the basis, which could provide an opportunity to design a new type of printing press.
The emergence of book printing in Moscow dates back to about 1563, when anonymous (without indicating the year and place of publication) books appeared. The official date of the appearance of book printing in Russia is 1564. On March 1, 1564, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets released the first precisely dated Russian book, The Apostle, in the Moscow Printing House they founded. This book, distinguished by high original artistic design and excellent printing performance, is (like their other publications) an excellent monument of Russian printing art of the 16th century. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets independently produced all typesetting and printing equipment of the printing house and developed an original technology for printing books.
The first books were, as a rule, of a religious content, but then secular ones appeared along with them. So, in 1574, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian printed manual with the Russian alphabet for teaching writing and literacy. Fedorov has a great merit in the development of domestic book printing and the spread of Russian culture. In the second half of the XVI century. Russian papermaking is born - the manufacture of paper sheets by casting them from a rag mass. The art of Russian printing is continued by such masters as A. Nevezha, N. Fofanov, V. Burtsev and many others. The experience of Russian printing business finds application in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, etc.
The reforms carried out by Peter I also affected the printing industry. Since 1703, the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to appear. In 1708, for printing books, the Church Slavonic font was replaced by a simpler and more readable civilian font, the production of secular books increased, new printing houses and paper factories were opened. In 1728, the first Russian magazine was published - a weekly supplement to the newspaper St. Petersburg Vedomosti.
The technical revolution of the 19th century did not pass by the printing industry, which is beginning to turn into an industrial sector: the circulation of books, magazines and newspapers is growing in the world, the terms of their production are being reduced; new printing houses are opened; there are more advanced processes for making printing plates; printing and binding processes are being mechanized; expanding raw materials for paper production. The appearance of books is changing - they become more diverse in format, simpler and stricter in design, illustration methods, and the use of various fonts. Leading was letterpress.
In 1834, a material for offset forms with the necessary properties was found - zinc, and already in 1846/47, for the first time, thin metal plates were bent and mounted on a cylinder. Rotating plate cylinders have increased the speed of printing production and have become a prerequisite for creating printing units in modern printing machines ah, running at high speeds.
Around 1908, the American Aira Rubel and the German Kaspar Herman invented offset printing, in which printing is done not directly from a mold, but through a rubber sheet. However, the letterpress printing method still remained the main type of printing.
Postcards in the field of photography were of great importance for the development of printing.
The invention of photography (1839) and the discovery (1855) of the possibility of light tanning of layers consisting of gelatin and a salt of chromic acid led to the development of photochemical methods for making pictorial printing plates. In these methods, information from the original began to be transferred to the form material not manually, but by photographic means. In the 80s, such methods began to be used to reproduce not only dashed, but also tone single-color, and somewhat later, multi-color originals.
Efforts made in the 1930s to mechanize metal typing ended successfully in the 1990s. In 1886, a type-setting line-casting machine (“linotype”) was invented, which mechanized typesetting and casting processes and made it possible to obtain monolithic type lines of text. A year later, a type-setting letter-casting machine (“monotype”) appeared, giving lines of text consisting of separate metal printing (letters) and space elements (as in manual typing).
Simultaneously with the development of prepress processes, the printing technique was improved. So manual printing presses are replaced by productive machines. In 1807, the first printing machine with a capacity of 400 prints/h was invented - a letterpress platen press, in which the printing plate and the pressing surface are flat. Since 1814, more advanced flatbed letterpress printing presses with a productivity of 800 prints / h began to be used. In them, the printing plate is located on a flat surface, and the pressure is carried out by a rotating cylinder. Paper feed and print take-up continued to be done manually.
In the first half of the XIX century. stereotypy is developing - manufacturing processes in the form of plates or half-cylinders of metal printing plates - copies from a metal set and clichés. Thanks to the use of this technology in the 70s, the most productive rotary web letterpress presses appeared, in which the printing plate is fixed on the surface of a cylinder and pressure is applied by another cylinder. In these machines, the paper coming from the roll, after being sealed on both sides, is cut into separate sheets and folded in the form of finished newspapers or book (magazine) notebooks. At the end of the XIX century. rotary gravure machines appear, and at the beginning of the 20th century - flat offset printing; Sheet-fed machines are equipped with feeders for feeding sheets of paper, the acceptance of prints is mechanized.
The introduction of stereotypy in the printing industry was prepared many years of work inventors different countries peace. However, the beginning of serious industrial implementation and the development of stereotypy are associated with the names of Russian inventors - Fedor Archimovich (mid-19th century) in the field of paper matrixing and B.S. Jacobi (1836) in electroplating.
At the same time, Russian inventors were working on the creation of die-beating typesetting machines. D.A. worked a lot and fruitfully in this area. Timiryazev (1837-1903), I.N. Livchak (1839-1914), V.V. Slobodsky and others.
In the second half of the XIX century. there have been great changes in the field of paper production: the resources of raw materials for paper have significantly increased due to the use of wood pulp and cellulose, paper machines have been improved, which began to be equipped with drying devices and give a paper tape up to 3 m wide at a speed of 120 m/min. This made it possible to better meet the growing demand for printed paper. And in the first half of the XX century. the speed of paper machines was 300-400 m/min with a paper tape width of up to 6 m. Natural dyes (pigments) for printing inks are replaced by artificial ones.
The mechanization of stitching and binding production began only in the middle of the 19th century: single-knife paper-cutting machines and gilding presses for embossing binding covers appeared. Somewhat later, wire sewing (1856) and thread sewing (1875) machines began to be used to facilitate the binding of blocks of brochures and books. At the beginning of the XX century. cover-making and book-inserting machines, folding machines and other equipment appear. In the following decades, the further transition of stitching and binding processes to machine technology continues, the book acquires a design close to modern. However, the share manual labor in the production of books for many years remains significant.
In general, the XX century. for the printing industry of the developed countries of the world, it is characterized by an increase in the output of printed products, the continuing mechanization of manual operations; improvement of technological processes, materials and equipment; the transition from individual machines to automatic systems (aggregates, lines); flow automated production of books and magazines from printed sheets. In the printing industry, control and measuring and regulating equipment began to be used, and from the 50-60s, electronics and electronic computers, first for the manufacture of printing plates and phototypesetting, and then in printing and binding production. At present, not only electronics, but also laser technology is widely used.
Russian scientists and inventors also made a significant contribution to the development of world printing, and above all in such areas as the mechanization and automation of typesetting processes (including phototypesetting), galvanostereotyping, the manufacture of graphic printing forms, the offset method of transferring ink during printing, etc.
Polygraphy of the first decade of Soviet power
The printing industry of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was an industry consisting mainly of small enterprises. The largest enterprises of that time were concentrated in Moscow, Petrograd and Kyiv. Many nationalities and the outlying population of the country did not have their own printing base. Printing equipment and a significant part of the materials were imported from abroad. The level of mechanization of production, especially typesetting and binding processes was very low. The population of the country lacked books, magazines and newspapers.
In 1913, 30 thousand titles of books and pamphlets were published in Russia with a total circulation of 99 million copies, i.e. there were less than 0.7 editions per person. In that year, the single circulation of newspapers was 2.7 million copies.
After the October Socialist Revolution and the exhausting civil war, the country's printing industry found itself in more difficult conditions than in 1913. By the beginning of 1921, 40% of the available printing equipment was not working, stocks of paper were sharply reduced, there were not enough printing inks and other materials. A significant part of skilled printing workers was in the army.
After the civil war, measures are being taken to concentrate and develop the printing industry on the basis of new equipment and technology, to increase the production of paper, to train workers, and subsequently also engineering and technical personnel. The expansion and strengthening of the printing industry was carried out in three directions: the liquidation of small handicraft enterprises, the reconstruction of old large printing houses and the construction of new enterprises. Particular attention was paid to the development of the printing base in the national republics, as well as the development of the paper industry and the creation of domestic printing engineering.
By 1929, the pre-revolutionary output of printed materials had been surpassed: in 1928, about 35,000 titles of books and pamphlets were published in the country with a total circulation of more than 270 million copies. Books were published in 50 languages.
Printing 30-40 years. In 1931, the domestic printing machine-building industry produced the first printing press (flat-bed letterpress), and in 1932, the first type-setting machine, in 1933, the first letterpress newspaper unit. Already by 1940, factories in Leningrad, Rybinsk and other cities produced 70 types of printing machines.
The capacities of the printing industry are increasing not only due to the reconstruction of existing enterprises, but also the construction of new, powerful enterprises at that time: the publishing house and printing house of the Pravda newspaper, enterprises in Smolensk, Sverdlovsk, Kazan, Poltava, Yerevan, Tbilisi, Dushanbe, Minsk and others cities. Since 1931, the printing of central newspapers began in Kharkov, Sverdlovsk, Leningrad and other cities using stereotypical matrices delivered by plane from Moscow.
Great work on the mechanization and automation of technological processes and the creation of new designs of printing machines was carried out by research institutes of the printing industry and printing engineering, educational printing institutes, created in the early 30s. New paper mills, a plant for the production of printing inks were built, type foundries were reconstructed.
During the prewar years, the domestic printing industry turned into an industrial sector of the national economy, based on the use of mechanized, and in some cases automated technological processes for making printing plates, printing and binding production. The printing industry has grown both qualitatively and quantitatively. In the pre-war year of 1940, 41 thousand titles of books and pamphlets were published with a total circulation of over 820 million copies. (more than 4.2 copies per capita), i.e. exceeded the level of 1913 by 6 times. The single circulation of newspapers was more than 38 million copies. The number of books published in binding covers is significantly increasing, the quality of design and printing performance of all printed products is improving.
Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 not only interrupted the further development of the Soviet printing industry, but also caused it great damage: 35% of the capacities of printing enterprises were destroyed, until 1943 the production of equipment ceased, and the production of printing materials decreased.
Polygraphy after the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945. The post-war period is characterized by intensive restoration and improvement of the printing industry, which, having reached in 1948 on the whole the pre-war (1940) level, continued its development. As early as 1955, the annual circulation of published books and pamphlets amounted to 219% compared to 1940, magazines - 147% and newspapers - 136%.
In subsequent years, further mechanization and automation continued, primarily of the most labor-intensive processes (typesetting and stitching and binding), the transition to mass production, the widespread use of synthetic materials, and labor productivity is growing. New production capacities are being introduced through the construction of large plants (in Minsk, Chekhov, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Tver, Mozhaisk and in many cities of the Union republics), and the reconstruction of existing enterprises. The output of printed paper, paints and binding materials is increasing.
Printing machine building expands the range of manufactured equipment (up to 200 items), modernizes existing and develops new machines: typesetting, formwork, printing and binding, electronic equipment is being introduced. The most progressive technological processes began to be used in the printing industry: electronic-mechanical engraving of letterpress and gravure forms, electronic photocomposition, the use of photopolymer forms letterpress, electronic way obtaining negatives and transparencies for the manufacture of pictorial forms of various types of printing, the manufacture of forms for flat offset printing on production lines, printing on multicolor rotary machines, automated mass production books and magazines.
The forwarding of stereotypical matrices by planes to the populated areas of the country (since 1964) is gradually being replaced by facsimile transmission of images of newspaper pages. The predominant development is the method of flat offset printing for printing a wide variety of products (including newspapers). In accordance with the scientific and technological progress of the printing industry, editorial and publishing processes are gradually being rebuilt on the basis of electronic computing and phototypesetting equipment.
The development of the printing industry in our country is well illustrated by the continuous growth of published publications, such as books, over the past 20 years. In 1970, 1.3 billion copies of books and pamphlets were published, in 1975 - 1.67 billion copies, in 1980 - 1.76 billion copies, in 1985 - 2.1 billion copies ., and in 1990 - 2.6 billion copies. The growth in the output of magazines, newspapers and visual products is also significant.
By the beginning of the 60s of the XX century. offset printing method has become widespread not only in book and magazine production, but has also proven itself well in newspaper production. However, the wide and intensive introduction of offset printing was significantly hampered by cumbersome and lengthy prepress processes, which were mainly based on letter and line casting, from which the text was subsequently printed on a transparent film. Therefore, the leading manufacturers of prepress equipment have long been developing the production of text forms based on the use of a photographic process. Initially, they tried to implement this on the basis of letter- and line-casting machines, replacing the casting apparatus with a photographic one, and the recessed point of the matrices was filled with special plastic. However, the combination of complex and inefficient mechanics with the photographic process could not give the desired result. In addition to low productivity, the quality of text forms left much to be desired.
In 1954, the 100th anniversary of the birth of O. Mergentailer, the inventor of the first type-setting line-moulding machine, was celebrated. At this time, over 100,000 Linotupe typesets were in use worldwide.
In the same year, at the Drupa 54 exhibition, Linotupe AG presented the Lino-Quick-System and Teletypesetter, a new generation of automated typesetting. In the same 1954, a new stage in the development of the company and, accordingly, typesetting equipment begins, marked by the beginning of the development of the first Linofilm phototypesetting machine, designed to perform complex types of typesetting. The font carrier was a type frame that was motionless during photography, carrying a negative image of the signs.
At the Drupa 58 exhibition, Linotupe AG presented the first system for collecting and transmitting information over a distance.
In 1964, Linotupe AG introduced a new Linofilm-Quick phototypesetting machine, which had the highest productivity at that time (12.5 characters / s) and was designed for typing simple and complex texts in sizes from 5 to 18 points. code.
At the same time, the company was developing to eliminate complex mechanical systems and replace them with more advanced solutions using the achievements of electronics.
The next stage in the development of prepress technology was marked by the release in 1967 by Linotupe AG of the Linotron 1010 ultra-high-speed phototypesetting machine, in which a raster method of forming characters on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen was used to reproduce the image of text on photographic material in combination with a type carrier in the form of a frame with a negative image characters in the amount of 256 pieces in three styles. In the Linotron 1010 machine, the text is reproduced on a CRT screen and photographed in strips. An additional device made it possible to place illustrations on the strip, which were automatically rasterized. The phototypesetting machine Linotron 1010 was part of a system consisting of a computer specially programmed for a set of encoders and auxiliary equipment. The absence of mechanical devices made it possible to increase the typing speed to 1000 marks/s.
However, the complexity and laboriousness of proofreading significantly reduced the effectiveness of this technique.
The next technical achievement of Linotype AG in 1971 was the creation and use in the phototypesetting system of the first video terminal device Correctprm M 100 for correcting the program for controlling the phototypesetting machine on punched tape, which made it possible to significantly reduce the laboriousness of editing in the typesetting process.
In 1975-1976 Linotype AG has released two phototypesetting machines CRTronic and Linotron 606 with a fundamentally new way of storing fonts, based on the digital representation of information about the type of characters. The CRTronic phototypesetter was essentially a compact desktop phototypesetting system that allowed for typesetting, proofreading, layout and output of text on photographic material using a small-sized CRT.
The phototypesetting machine Linotron 606 was a high-speed machine with a capacity of about 5 million characters per hour and was the basis of the phototypesetting system. The digital way of presenting font and graphic information made it possible to reproduce not only text, but also line and halftone illustrations on the screen of a large-format CRT machine, which was a new achievement in the automation of the prepress process.
In 1984, the company took a new step in the development of phototypesetting equipment, starting the production of Linotronic 100 and Linotronic 300 laser phototypesetting machines.
The Linotronic 100 machine made it possible to expose text and illustrations with a resolution of 360, 720 and 1440 dpi (dpi) at an image recording speed of 22, 12 and 6.5 cm/min, respectively.
The phototypesetting machine Linotronic 300 marked the beginning of a widespread series of laser phototypesetting machines, which since 1986 includes new large format machines - Linotronic 500 and its modifications. Linotronic 300 and 500 automata, built according to the same scheme, made it possible to record an image of a newspaper strip using a helium-neon laser in a time of about 1 min.
Since 1988, Linotype AG has been using semiconductor lasers as the light source in phototypesetting machines. The Linotronic 200P, the first PostScript phototypesetting machine, used a laser diode.
Subsequent technical achievements in the field of prepress equipment are associated with the merger of Linotype AG with Hell (Germany) and the formation of Linotype-Hell on their basis; AG in Kiel (Germany) in April 1990
Hell was founded in Munich in 1929 by the famous German inventor Dr. Rudolf Hell as a part of the Siemens concern. R. Hell gained fame as the creator of the transmitting television tube, which he invented together with Professor Diekmann and presented for the first time at an exhibition in Munich in 1927.
The widespread introduction of phototypesetting has significantly increased the share of offset printing in the production of all types of printed products, including newspapers.
However, in newspaper production, the bulk of publications were produced on the basis of letterpress printing technology with a low level of automation of prepress processes.
The Hell company produced electrical equipment for the post office, the press, the police, and the meteorological service. In 1951, the company began the first work on the creation of electronic engraving machines for the production of typographic clichés. The focus on printing, the use of electronics in printing equipment and, first of all, in devices and systems for the production of illustrative printing plates, and subsequently illustrative photoforms, brought the company worldwide recognition as a leader in the field of electronic and digital image processing.
One of the first electronic engraving machines was the VarioKlischograph K181 universal machine, which was successfully introduced in 1954 into newspaper production.
This is a large-format electronic flat-type machine for engraving raster and line clichés for single-color and color work in reflected and transmitted light. The scale smoothly changes from 1:3 to 4:1.
Since 1960, Hell has been producing electronic engraving machines for the production of intaglio printing plates. One of the first such machines was the HelioKlischograph K200, which consisted of analyzing and engraving sections installed on the same frame, and separate cabinets with electronic devices. Up to four analyzing and engraving heads could be simultaneously used in the machine to increase productivity with different technological options for engraving, reproduction of the same image on the surface of the plate cylinder.
The high level of automation of typesetting processes did not correspond to traditional methods of image processing and, above all, the manufacture of color separation plates.
In 1963, Hell released the first electronic color separation machine in the ChromaGraph series of machines, the use of which for the manufacture of color separation illustration photoplates significantly reduced technological process obtaining forms for color printing.
Over the next 20 years, Hell has mastered several different models of electronic color separation machines (ChromaGraph DC300, DC350, С299, СР340 and others), in which, as in the first, the analysis and synthesis sections were structurally combined with one common drive.
In the domestic printing industry, electronic color separation machines DC300 and C299 were widely used and in some printing houses are still used. Since 1983, the Odessa Polygraphmash plant began to master the production of an electronic color separating machine ECM under a license from Hell based on the DC300 machine. Several ECM machines were produced. Hell is rightfully considered the founder of electronic phototypesetting with digital representation of information about font styles and illustrations. In 1965, the first high-speed phototypesetting machine with digital memory for fonts was released, in which the image of the characters of the font was reproduced on the CRT screen.
The best known of Hell's high speed CRT phototypesetters are the Digiset series. The company produced phototypesetting machines Digiset 50T1, 50T2, 40T10, 40T20, 20T1, etc.
Linotype-Hell AG, formed as a result of the merger of Linotype AG and Hell, in the period from April 1990 to November 1997, using the scientific, technical and production potential of the merged companies, launched a whole range of machines and software on the prepress equipment market. These are ChromaGraph S2000, ChromaGraph S3900, ChroinaGraph System DC3000, Topaz, Tango scanners: phototypesetters Linotronic 260, 300, 330. 500, 530, 560, 630, 830, 930. ChromaGraph R3020, R3030, R3030PS, Linotronic2 Mark 1. 40EX; Computer-to-Plate Gutenberg systems; LinoColor software packages; DaVinci ColorPage. DaVinci Preprint; Delta Technology and other hardware and software tools.
Currently, Heidelberg Prepress is a leader in the production of prepress equipment and produces a set of equipment and software for prepress processes implemented in one of three ways: Computer-to-Film, Computer-to-Plate, Computer-to-Press.
With the Computer-to-Film method, the production of a color print is carried out in 8 stages. Unlike other methods, here some operations are still carried out manually.
The Computer-to-Plate process is even more automated than Computer-to-Film. With this method, the printing plate itself is exposed (without the use of films). Thus, the production of a color print is carried out in 6 stages.
by the most fast way is Computer-to-Press. Thanks to the use of digital technology, it is carried out in just 4 stages. With this method, the electronic information is directly transferred to the printing plate already in the printing press.
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The main stages of printing production
Modern printing technology includes three main stages, without which no printing house can do: prepress, press and postpress processes.The prepress production process ends with the creation of an information carrier from which text, graphic and illustrative elements can be transferred to paper (printing form production).
The printing process, or printing proper, produces printed sheets. For their production, a printing machine and a carrier of information prepared for printing (printing form) are used.
At the third stage printing technology, called the post-printing process, final processing and finishing of sheets of paper (prints) printed in a printing machine are carried out to give the resulting printed products a presentation (brochure, book, booklet, etc.).
Prepress process.
At this stage, one or more (for multi-color products) printing plates for printing a certain type of work should be obtained.
If the print is single-color, then the form can be a sheet of plastic or metal (aluminum), on which a drawing is applied in a direct (readable) image. The surface of the offset form is processed in such a way that, despite the fact that the printing and non-printing elements are practically in the same plane, they perceive the ink applied to it selectively, providing an impression on paper when printing. If multi-color printing is required, then the number of printing forms must correspond to the number of printing inks, the image is preliminarily divided with the selection of individual colors or inks.
The basis of prepress processes is color separation. Extracting the constituent colors of a color photograph or other halftone drawing is a tricky job. To perform such complex printing work, electronic scanning systems, powerful computer and software, special output devices for photographic film or plate material, various auxiliary equipment, as well as the availability of highly qualified, trained specialists.
Such a prepress system costs at least 500 - 700 thousand dollars. Therefore, most often, in order to significantly reduce investments in the organization of printing houses, they resort to the services of special reproduction centers. They, having everything necessary to perform prepress work, prepare sets of color separations on order, from which sets of color separation printing plates can be made in a conventional printing house.
Printing process.
The printing plate is the basis of the printing process. As already mentioned, offset printing is currently widespread in the printing industry, which, despite its almost
100 years of existence, constantly improving, remaining dominant in printing technology.
Offset printing is carried out on printing machines, the principle of operation of which was discussed above.
post-press process. The post-printing process consists of a number of important operations that give the printed prints a marketable appearance.
If sheet editions were printed, then they need to be trimmed and trimmed to certain formats. For these purposes, paper cutting equipment is used, ranging from manual cutters to high-performance cutting machines, designed to simultaneously cut hundreds of sheets of paper of all formats common in practice.
For sheet products, post-press processes end after cutting. The situation is more complicated with multi-sheet products. In order to bend the sheets of a magazine or a book, you need folding equipment on which folding takes place ( from him.false- bend) - sequential bending of printed sheets of a book, magazine, etc.
If you want to make a brochure or a book consisting of separate sheets from printed and cut into separate sheets of prints, they need to be matched one to the other. For this purpose, sheet-collecting equipment is used. When the selection is completed, a thick stack of crumbling sheets is obtained. In order for the sheets to be combined into a brochure or book, they must be stapled. Currently, the most widespread are 2 types of fastening - wire and seamless adhesive. Wire binding is mainly used for brochures, i.e. printed publications from 5 to 48 pages. For fastening with wire staples, booklet makers are used. These devices can be used alone or
in combination with collating systems. More complex work is performed on special wire stitching machines.
To fasten a large number of sheets, adhesive bonding is used, which is carried out either with the help of “cold” glue - polyvinyl acetate emulsion, or hot melt hot melt adhesive. The spine of the future book edition is smeared with glue, firmly holding the sheets until the glue dries completely. The advantages of this technology are good appearance books, the flexibility and stability of the book block, strength and durability.
In the work of small- and medium-circulation printing houses, there are similar processes. However, as the main printing equipment of these printing houses, not offset machines are used, but duplicators capable of reproducing both single-color and multi-color copies.
Review questions for the first topic
1. The main stages of the formation of printing equipment and technology.2. Methods of modern printing.
3. Systems of large- and medium-circulation printing.
4. Systems short run printing.
5. The main stages of printing production.
Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY PHOTOS
The formation of photographic equipment and technology
Photography is the theory and methods of obtaining a visible image of objects on light-sensitive photographic materials - silver halide (AgHal) and non-silver.Photography originally arose as a way of capturing portraits or creating natural images, which took much less time than painting by an artist. The advent of cinema and color photography greatly increased its possibilities, and in the 20th century photography became one of the most important media of information and documentation. The variety of tasks solved with the help of photography allows us to consider it at the same time a section of science, technology and art.
The widespread use of photography in human life determines its diversity. There are photographs in black and white and color, artistic and scientific and technical (aerial photography, microphotography, x-ray, infrared, etc.), planar and volumetric. It is clear that any photographic image in itself is flat, and its three-dimensionality (in particular, in stereoscopic photography) is achieved by simultaneously shooting an object from two close points and then viewing two images at once (each of them with only one eye). A very special kind 3D photography is holography: here the method of recording optical information is different than in ordinary photography.
The origins of photography date back to the late 15th century, when artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, used the camera obscura to project an image onto paper or canvas, which they then sketched.
Photography in the proper sense of the word arose much later. More than three hundred years passed before information about the photosensitivity of certain substances appeared and methods arose for using and preserving changes in such substances under the influence of light. Silver salts were discovered and studied among the first light-sensitive substances in the 18th century. In 1802, T. Wedgwood in Great Britain obtained an image on a layer of silver nitrate (AgNO 3), but could not fix it.
The birth date of photography is considered to be January 7, 1839, when the French physicist D.F. Arago (1786 - 1853) informed the Paris Academy of Sciences about the invention by the artist and inventor L.J.M. Daguerre (1787 - 1851) of a practically acceptable method of photography, which he called daguerreotype. However, this process was preceded by the experiments of the French inventor J.N. Niepce (1765 - 1833), associated with the search for ways to fix the image of objects obtained under the action of light. So, the first surviving print of the urban landscape, made with a camera obscura, was obtained by him as early as 1826. Niépce used a solution of asphalt in lavender oil as a light-sensitive layer applied to tin, copper or silver-plated plates. In 1827, he sent a "Note on Heliography" to the British Royal Society, in which he reported his invention, and samples of his work. In 1829, Niepce concluded an agreement with Daguerre on the formation of a commercial enterprise "Niepce - Daguerre" for joint work to improve their method. Daguerre, continuing the development of Niepce, discovered in 1835 the ability of mercury vapor to show a latent image on an exposed iodized non-silver plate, and in 1837 he already recorded a visible image. The difference in photosensitivity compared to the Niépce process using silver chloride was 1:120.
The heyday of daguerreotype dates back to the 40s - 60s of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously with Daguerre, another method of photography - calotype (talbotype) was reported by the English scientist U.G.F. Talbot (1800 - 1877). He began photographic experiments in 1834 and in 1835 he obtained a photograph using the "photogenic drawing" he had previously proposed. A patent for this method was issued in 1841. In January 1839, upon learning of Daguerre's invention, Talbot tried to prove his priority. His pamphlet A Report on the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or The Process By Which Natural Objects Can Be Depicted Without the Help of an Artist's Brush, was the world's first publication on photography (published
February 21, 1839). A significant disadvantage of "photogenic painting" was the long exposure.
The similarity between the Daguerre and Talbot methods was limited to the use of silver iodide as a photolayer. In the rest of the technology, the methods differed greatly: in the daguerreotype, a positive mirror-reflecting silver image was immediately obtained, which simplified the process, but made it impossible to obtain copies, and in the Talbot calotype, a negative was made,
with which it was possible to make any number of prints. Those. Talbot's method, representing a two-degree negative - positive sequence of the process, became the prototype contemporary photography.
In the days of Niépce, Daguerre, and Talbot, the term "photography" did not yet exist. This concept gained the right to exist only in 1878, when it was included in the Dictionary of the French Academy. Most historians of photography believe that the term "photography" was first used by the Englishman J. Herschel on March 14, 1839. However, there is another opinion: for the first time this term was used by the German astronomer Johann von Madler (February 25, 1839.).
Along with the development of chemical - photographic processes, Daguerre, Talbot and other scientists worked on the creation and development of photographic apparatus. The first cameras developed by them were of considerable size and weight. Thus, L.Zh.M. Daguerra weighed over 50 kg. F. Talbot, using lenses with a shorter focal length, was able to make smaller cameras. The Frenchman A. Selye in 1839 designed a camera with a folding bellows, as well as a tripod and a ball head for it, a light-protective awning, a stowage box in which all the photographer's equipment was placed.
In 1841 in Germany, P.V.F. Feuchtländer made the first metal camera equipped with a fast lens by I. Petzval. Thus, the design of most cameras of that period was a box camera consisting of a box with a tube in which the lens was built in (focusing was done by extending the lens), or a camera consisting of two boxes moving one relative to the other (the lens was mounted on the front wall one of the boxes). The further evolution of photographic equipment for filming was associated with a wide interest in photography, which led to the development of a lighter and more transportable camera, called a road camera, as well as cameras of various types and designs.
Simultaneously with the modernization and improvement of photographic technology, the chemical technology of photography was also developing. Daguerreotype and talbotype are a thing of the past. In the 60s-70s of the 19th century, the wet collodion process, which was proposed in 1851 by the English sculptor F.S. Archer (1813 - 1857). Its essence was that a collodion solution containing potassium iodide was applied to a glass plate immediately before photographing. However, the low light sensitivity of the photo layer, the need to prepare it immediately before shooting, and the fact that such a plate could only be used in a wet state were significant drawbacks of the method, moreover, its use was limited to portrait work in pavilions.
Active developments to increase photosensitivity and create dry photolayers have led to the appearance of dry bromogelatin plates. This discovery was made by the English physician R.L. Maddox (1816 - 1902), who published in 1871 the article "Experiment with gelatin bromide" on the use of gelatin instead of collodion as a binder for silver bromide. The introduction of dry silver bromide plates made it possible to divide the photography process into two stages: the production of photographic layers and the use of ready-made photographic materials to obtain negative and positive images.
The 80s marked the beginning of the period of development of modern photography. This was largely facilitated by obtaining photographic materials of sufficiently high sensitivity. Indeed, if with heliography the exposure was six hours, daguerreotype - thirty minutes, calotype - three minutes, wet collodion process - ten seconds, then with the use of silver bromide gelatin emulsion it decreased to 1/100 of a second.
An important role in the development of photography on silver halide photolayers was played by the discovery in 1873 by the German scientist G. Vogel (1834 - 1898) of optical sensitization ( from lat.sensibilis- sensitive). He found that the expansion of the spectral range of sensitivity of the layers can be achieved by introducing into them dyes that absorb light of longer wavelengths than silver halides, which are selectively sensitive only to blue, blue and violet rays, i.e. shortwave rays. Vogel showed that the addition of the yellow-red dye coralline to the emulsion resulted in an increase in sensitivity to green and yellow rays. Spectral sensitization allowed not only to improve the reproduction of colors when photographing, but also became a step in the development of color photography. Thus, by the end of the 19th century, fragile and heavy glass plates were replaced by photographic material on an elastic, light and transparent base, inert to chemicals.
American amateur photographer G.V. Goodwin (182 - 1900) became the inventor of photographic film. In 1887 he filed an application for the invention "Photographic film and the process of its production." The creation of photographic film, and then the development by J. Eastman (1854 - 1933) of a photography system using this photographic material, led to changes in the photographic industry, made photography accessible to the mass consumer, both technically and economically. This invention had a very great future. So,
By the 1970s, about 90% of all produced AgHal - photographic materials were photographic films. In the modern range of photographic materials, films are usually negative, papers are positive.
In modern photography, a variant of black and white photography on the AgHal layer, based on the “diffusion transfer” process, has also become widespread. In our country, this process is implemented in the Moment photosystem; abroad, such systems were first developed by Polaroid (USA). The system includes a large-format (frame size 9 x 12 cm) camera, a negative AgHal - photographic film, a multi-purpose processing solution, uniformly applied to the surface of the film when it is rewound in the camera immediately after exposure, and a receiving, positive layer, rolled to the developing negative layer when rewind. Due to the high viscosity of the solution, the processing process is practically dry and allows you to get, without removing the negative film from the camera, a ready-made dried print on the receiving layer in about a minute after shooting.
A special group of processes on AgHal - photolayers are the processes of color photography. Their initial stages are the same as in black and white photography, including the emergence of a latent image and its manifestation. However, the material of the final image is not developed silver, but a combination of three dyes, the formation and quantity of which in each area of the photolayer is controlled by developed silver, the silver itself is subsequently removed from the image. As in black and white photography, there are both a separate negative-positive process with printing of positives either on special color photographic paper or on film, and a direct positive process on inverted color photographs.
materials.
Color photography was a major step in the development of photographic technology. The first person who pointed out the possibility of using color reproduction in photography in 1861 was an English physicist.
J. K. Maxwell. Based on the three-component theory of color vision, he proposed to obtain one or another given color. According to Maxwell, any multi-color image can be subjected to color separation into blue, green and red ranges of the visible spectrum. Then, by additive synthesis, these beams could be projected onto a screen. The results of the experiments showed that, for example, light with a predominance of blue and green rays forms a blue color on the screen, blue and red rays - purple, green and red rays - yellow, blue, green and red rays of equal intensity when mixed give white color.
Color separation and additive synthesis (according to Maxwell) were carried out as follows. The object was filmed on three black and white negatives through blue, green and red glass. Then black-and-white positives were printed on a transparent basis and beams of the same color as the filters used during the shooting were passed through these positives, three partial (single-color) images were projected onto the screen, combining which along the contour a color image of the object was obtained. Additive processes found some use, for example, in early color films. However, due to the bulkiness of filming and projection cameras and the difficulty of combining partial images, they gradually lost practical value.
The so-called raster method turned out to be more convenient. Colored in blue, green and red, starch grains were applied to rasters, which were located between the glass or film and the photosensitive layer. When shooting, the colored elements of the raster served as color-separating microlight filters, and in the positive image obtained by inversion, they served as color reproduction elements. The first raster photographic materials, the so-called autochromic plates, were produced in 1907 by the Lumiere company (France). However, due to the poor sharpness of the resulting images, insufficient brightness, a raster color photograph is already
in the 30s of the twentieth century, it gave way to methods based on the so-called subtractive principle of color synthesis.
These methods use the same principle of color separation as in additive processes, and color reproduction is carried out by subtracting primary colors from white light. This is achieved by mixing various amounts of dyes on a white or transparent basis, the colors of which are complementary to the main ones - yellow, purple, blue, respectively. So, by mixing magenta and cyan dyes, blue is obtained (purple subtracts green from white, and cyan subtracts red), yellow and magenta dyes - red, cyan and yellow - green. By mixing equal amounts of all three dyes, a black color is obtained. For the first time (1868–1869), the subtractive synthesis of color was carried out by the French inventor L. Ducos du Auron.
Subtractive processes on multilayer color photographic materials are the most widely used in modern amateur and professional cinema - photography and color printing. The first such materials were produced in 1935 by the American firm Eastman Kodak and in 1938 by the German firm Agfa. Color separation in them was achieved by selective absorption of primary colors by three light-sensitive silver halide layers placed on a single basis, and a color image was achieved as a result of the so-called color development using organic dyes, the foundations of which were laid by the German chemists B. Gomolka and R. Fischer in 1907 and 1912 respectively.
Color development is carried out with the help of special developers based on color developing substances, which, unlike black and white developing substances, not only convert silver halide into metallic silver, but also participate, together with the color components present in the emulsion layers, in the formation of organic dyes.
Along with the wide distribution of "silver" photographic materials
in photo production, silver-free technologies are also used, which are based on the use of photosensitive layers that do not contain halides or other silver compounds. They use photochemical processes in a substance dissolved in a binding medium, photoelectric processes on the surface of a thin layer of an electrified semiconductor, photochemical processes directly in polymer films and thin polycrystalline layers.
The advantage of silver-free photographic materials is one- or two-stage processing, a short time for obtaining an image on them, high resolution, low cost (4 times cheaper than black and white silver halide). The disadvantages of silver-free materials include low light sensitivity compared to silver halide photographic materials. Most of them are sensitive to light only
in the UV - region of the spectrum, they do not transmit halftones well. For this reason, they are not used for direct photography, and it is impossible or difficult to obtain color images on them. Nevertheless, silver-free photographic materials are used in microfilming, copying and duplicating documents, displaying information, and other areas.
Thus, the sequence of actions for obtaining a photograph includes several stages. The first stage consists in creating on the surface of the light-sensitive layer the illumination distribution corresponding to the image or signal. Under the action of light, chemical or physical changes occur in the photosensitive layer, which vary in strength in different parts of it. The intensity of these manifestations is determined by the exposure acting on each area of the photosensitive layer. The second stage is associated with the amplification of the changes that have occurred if they are too small for direct perception by the eye or device. At the third stage, the stabilization of the arisen or enhanced changes takes place, which allows you to save the received images or recordings of signals for a long time for viewing, analyzing, extracting information from the received image.
In 1985, the first desktop publishing system appeared, and with it the term “prepress”.
Prepress preparation of the publication includes:
·Typing
·Scanning of illustrative material.
Depending on the primary source (paper or slide), two types of scanners are used - flatbed and drum.
Layout - spatial organization of the material
· Output of photoforms (“films”). If the edition is black and white - one photoform, if it is full color - four (for black - b, magenta - m, cyan - c, yellow - y).
Printing house:
· Production of the printing form consisting of hydrophilic and hydrophobic elements.
· Printing (in most cases - offset).
·Folding.
· Cutting.
Tab (if multi-page edition).
Main development trends:
· The oldest seal is high (the problem is poor reproduction of illustrations).
· Gravure printing (since the middle of the 13th century, unreasonably expensive).
· Flat (types: lithography, phototype and offset). Offset (since 1904) is the most common way.
· The latest trend is digital printing. There are currently two types of digital printing machines on the market: xeicon (four cylinders for different colors) and indigo (one cylinder, but the paper goes through four times). They operate on the principle of a laser printer. Convenient for printing small runs (up to 2000 copies).
· With the development of information technology, the efficiency of information transfer increases, its search and access to various sources via the Internet is facilitated.
·Modern editions are moving to "paperless" production of printed materials.
New technologies have opened up opportunities for decentralizing the production of large-circulation printed periodicals. The distribution of such newspapers as Komsomolskaya Pravda, Trud, Moskovsky Komsomolets, Izvestia, or the weekly Arguments and Facts, whose circulation amounts to hundreds of thousands or even millions of copies, can only be ensured by dispersing the printing of issues across regions according to the number of potential readers in each of them. Through the Internet, the printing company located in the regional center receives the pages of the next issue, the circulation of which goes to subscribers and newsstands. For example, almost three million copies of the Argumenty i Fakty weekly are printed together with regional supplements in 64 cities of various republics, territories and regions of Russia and other CIS states, from Alma-Ata to Yaroslavl.
The editorial office of the Izvestia newspaper, whose circulation is printed in 26 cities - capitals and regional centers Russia and other countries.
On the other hand, the editorial offices of small local publications - city and district newspapers, which do not have technical base, allowing them to ensure the release and distribution of their publications at a sufficiently high design and printing level, can find a way out in using the centralization of newspaper production. Having prepared the next issue, such editors can transfer its texts, illustrations and layout via the Internet to a printing company located in the regional center or in another large nearby city.
There are shifts in the printing industry: many regional printing houses are being privatized, they are acquiring modern equipment abroad, they are prospering and have free money. And where there is a good printing base and funds, it is possible to create new promising newspaper and publishing concerns. In a number of regions, printing houses themselves have launched the production of newspapers aimed at city and regional audiences. For example, five such publications are published in the Tver region. Their founder is a printing house. These publications compare favorably with their predecessors.
The process of issuing a network newspaper required a restructuring of the editorial structure and organization of its work. The editorial office of a network newspaper does not require the presence of all or most of its employees in the office. Only specialists in electronics who control the electronic software of the release should be here. The rest of the editorial staff - journalists, managers, etc. - can perform their duties in accordance with the plan of the issue and the process of its release, being in any other place where they can work on a computer connected to electronic system newspapers. Its editor-in-chief can manage the release of the issue from home. The correspondent gets the opportunity to send his text or illustration from home or from the scene using his computer. The web editor also works on this text, editing it and uploading it to the issue. The webmaster-layout maintains the newspaper on the Internet.
V.L. Khmylev
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY
MASS MEDIA
Khmylev V.L. Technique and technology of mass media: Proc. allowance /Vol. polytechnic un - t. - Tomsk, 2003. - 107 p.
In the manual in short form the theoretical questions of the course "Technique and technology of mass media" are stated. For each topic, both theoretical material and questions for repetition and consolidation are presented. The manual was prepared at the Department of Cultural Studies and Social Communication of the Faculty of Humanities, complies with the State Educational Standard and is intended for students of the specialty "Public Relations" 350400 of the Institute of Distance Education.
Published by order of the Editorial and Publishing Council
Tomsk Polytechnic University.
Reviewers:
V.M. Ushakov - Professor of the Department of Applied Mechanics of the Institute of Economics and Entrepreneurship of the TSPU, Academician of MANEB, Doctor of Technical Sciences.
V.V. Bendersky - CEO CJSC "Tomsky Vestnik", candidate of technical sciences.
Templan 2003
Tomsk Polytechnic University, 2003
INTRODUCTION .................................................. ................................................. ................................ four
Theme I
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PRINTING .............................................. .................................. 5
Formation of printing equipment and technology .............................................. .... 5
Methods of modern printing ............................................................... .............................................. 9
Modern publishing and printing technology .............................................. . fifteen
The main stages of printing production .............................................................. ........ twenty
Questions for repetition to the first topic .............................................. .............................. 22
Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PHOTOGRAPHY.................................................................. .................... 23
Formation of photographic technique and technology .............................................. .23
Modern photographic equipment and
photographic methods ................................................................ ................................................. .29
Expressive means of photography .................................................................. .............................. 32
Optics in photography ............................................... ................................................. ......... 36
Setting Optical and Exposure Parameters............................................................... .. 38
Questions for repetition to the second topic .............................................. ........................... 52
Theme III
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF CINEMA ............................................... ................................................. 53
Filming equipment and visual means of cinema .............................................. 53
Peculiarities of shooting a movie for TV .............................................................. ...... 56
Questions for review to the third topic .............................................. ................................... 60
Theme IV
RADIO BROADCASTING TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY .................................................................. ............. 60
Technical means of broadcasting .............................................................. .............................. 60
Radio station and its equipment .............................................................. ............................................. 64
Expressive means of radio .............................................................. ......................................... 70
Production of basic radio programs .................................................................. ......................... 73
News broadcasts .................................................................. ................................................... 73
Live speeches and interviews ............................................... ......................... 76
Telephone interviews and recorded comments .............................................................. ............... 76
Correspondent materials .................................................................. ......................................... 76
Programming the broadcast grid .................................................................. ........................... 78
Questions for review for the fourth topic .............................................. ......................... 78
Theme V
TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY OF TELEVISION.................................................................. ................. 79
Technical means of television broadcasting .......................................................... ............ 79
Modern television technology .................................................................. ............................... 84
Transmitting television camera, video camera .............................................. .........95
Video recorder. Videocassettes and videodiscs .................................................................. ......... 100
Television studio and its equipment .................................................................. ............................................... 108
Questions for repetition to the fifth topic .............................................. .............................. 110
LIST OF USED LITERATURE .............................................................. ............ 110
INTRODUCTION
The development of various types of communications, the formation of the information society, the growing globalization of national and international relations at the beginning of the 21st century increased interest in the comprehensive study of information technology and technology. In educational terms, this trend was expressed in the appearance in the curricula of the humanities faculties with the specialty "Journalism", "Public Relations", special courses "Media Technique and Technology". In this regard, the proposed textbook is designed to promote independent study by students in the humanities of both the technical means of the mass media system and the techniques and technological features of the work of a modern journalist.
The need for this manual is due to the fact that so far in the educational literature there was no manual that is fully consistent with the program of the State educational standard in this discipline for the specialty "Public Relations". The publication of this textbook will help mastering the extensive material on the course "Media Technique and Technology" by students not only distance, but full-time - part-time and full-time forms of education.
Structurally, the study guide "Media Technique and Technology" is presented in the form of a package containing five topics, respectively, devoted to the consideration of the technique and technology of periodicals, photography, film, broadcasting and television. These sections discuss the basic principles technical systems, which are in the arsenal of a journalist. Here the student can get the information necessary for the professional use of modern technical means of information dissemination.
The textbook was written at the Department of Cultural Studies and Social Communication for students of the IDO TPU studying in the specialty "Public Relations".
Theme I
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PRINTING
Modern printing methods
In the modern printing industry, several types of printing are used - offset, letterpress, gravure, screen, etc. Their names reflect the features of the technological principles underlying various printing devices.
Offset printing. This method is currently the most common and technologically advanced printing method. For many decades, more than half of publishing and advertising products have been printed in offset.
Offset printing ( from English. offset) is a type of flat printing in which ink is transferred from a printing plate to the surface of a rubber web. From it, it goes to paper or other printed material. This allows you to print thin layers of ink on rough papers. The principle of offset printing was proposed in 1905 in the USA. The first offset printing machine was also created there. For each working cycle of such a machine, the printing plate is moistened, ink is rolled onto the printing elements, paper is fed, printing itself and the finished print is output to the receiving table.
Offset printing subsequently became widespread in the world of printing industry due to the mechanization of form processes, the high productivity of printing machines, which made it possible not only to significantly increase the circulation of publications, but also to print a variety of printing products, including multicolor.
The principle of offset printing technology is based on the selective wetting of the printing elements with ink, and the blank ones with an aqueous solution, which is achieved by applying films with different molecular surface properties that stably perceive either moisture or ink on the surface of the printed and blank areas of the form.
During the printing process, the form is alternately moistened with an aqueous solution or ink, then the image is transferred under pressure to the surface of a rubber plate or roller, and then to paper. Those. with this double image transfer, the paper does not come into direct contact with the printing plate. This technology has dramatically reduced the pressure required for printing, reduced plate wear, increased printing speed and improved image quality.
Offset printing uses monometallic and polymetallic printing plates. Monometallic printing plates are aluminum or zinc plates that undergo complex electrochemical preparation on automated electroplating lines to increase the adsorption capacity and increase the wear resistance of its surface.
Polymetallic forms are created on the basis of two metals with different molecular-surface properties: copper - to create stable printing elements and nickel (it can be replaced with chromium, stainless steel) - for blank elements. Polymetallic plates are usually made on an aluminum or steel base, on which a film of copper up to 10 microns thick and nickel or chromium 1–3 microns thick is galvanized on the entire surface of the plate.
Printing elements on monometallic or polymetallic plates are created by a photochemical method, copying the image through a negative or transparencies onto a photosensitive copy layer. Such layers are made from macromolecular compounds (albumin, Siberian larch gum, polyvinyl alcohol) and chromium salts, or diazo compounds, with the addition of film-forming substances or photopolymers. The products of the photochemical reaction of chromium salts have a tanning effect. When copying on illuminated areas, the layer becomes tanned (hardens) and loses its ability to dissolve in water. From unlit areas protected by opaque elements of the negative or transparencies, the layer is removed during development, and an image is created on the plate - printing elements.
The greatest application is found for copy layers on diazo compounds, in which under the action of light photochemical decomposition occurs in illuminated areas and the copy layer is removed from the plate during development. When using photopolymers under the action of light in illuminated places, the polymerization of the copy layer occurs, which does not dissolve in water. From unlit areas, the layer is removed during development.
Copy layers applied in a thin layer on metal plates retain their properties for a long time (more than a year), therefore there are specialized enterprises where metals are prepared with subsequent application of light-sensitive layers.
Printing elements on a monometal are created on a copy layer, protected during copying by opaque areas of a transparencies and remaining after the development of a copy. On polymetallic plates, the copy layer is removed from the printing elements after development and remains as a temporary protection in the blank areas. Then the top metal (nickel or chromium) is chemically or electrochemically etched to the copper layer, after which the protective layer is removed from the gap elements. With all methods of making forms, after creating the printing elements, the blank elements are treated with a hydrophilizing solution to give them stable hydrophilic properties.
Separate operations for the manufacture of monometallic molds (development, washing, drying) are carried out on mechanized installation x, copy processing processes and production of polymetallic molds - on mechanized lines.
The invention of the offset printing revolutionized the printing industry. It became possible to obtain light and cheap printing forms on aluminum plates. The use of an offset blanket as an intermediate material that takes on the pressure of printing created a gentle mode for the printing plate itself, and a flexible printing plate made it possible to switch to the rotary principle of building printing machines, which led to a sharp increase in printing speed. For example, modern web-fed rotary offset printing machines operate at speeds up to 100,000 rpm of an offset cylinder with a circumference of more than a meter and a printed strip of up to 2 meters.
Recently, a new so-called seamless offset printing technology has been introduced into printing practice. In Western terminology, it is called "Sleeve - technology". This technology has made it possible to increase the speed of printing and ensure the continuous movement of the paper web during the printing process.
Gravure printing. With this method, printing and white space elements are at different heights. Gravure printing is based on filling ink in recessed printing areas. Printing elements on a printing plate for gravure printing are cells of different volumes, which are filled with liquid ink with low viscosity. The intaglio printing method is a printing technology in which the transfer of an image and text to a printed material is carried out from a printing plate on which the printing elements are recessed in relation to the blank elements. The gap elements are on the same level, interconnected and form an inextricable mesh surface.
Different tonality of the image on the print is provided by different thicknesses of the ink layer. At the same time, in the traditional method of intaglio printing, the depth of the printing elements is the greatest in the dark areas of the image, and the smallest in the light areas. Another characteristic of this printing method is that during the printing process, the gravure printing plate is completely filled with ink. That is, the ink fills all printing and all white space elements. Since intaglio printing ink is applied both to the printing and blank elements of the form, it is necessary to remove the ink from the surface of the blank elements of the printing form before making an impression. In printing machines, this operation is done using a thin knife made of elastic steel tape - a squeegee.
In the vast majority of cases, printing industrial scale gravure printing is carried out on rotary presses, and gravure printing plates are usually made directly on plate cylinders.
The main advantage of the intaglio printing method is the ability to create image halftones on the print due to the different thickness of the ink layer. Cells (printing elements) of the printing form, which transfer ink to the printed material, have a different volume depending on the tone created on the print. The richer the tone (color), the larger the volume of the cell.
The manufacture of a printing plate with recessed printing elements can be achieved chemically (acid etching) or mechanically (engraving with cutters and other tools).
Among the most commonchemicalways include etching (from the Frencheau - forte – Nitric acid ). This the method of making a printing plate (engraving) combines the methods of manual engraving with chemical etching. When etching, a copper or zinc plate with a thickness of 0.5 to 2.5 mm is covered with acid-resistant varnish or acid-resistant primer, which includes wax, rosin, asphalt. The lines of the pattern are scratched over the lacquer film (primer), exposing the surface of the metal. The plate is then acid-etched several times.
After the first etching, sufficient for a slight deepening of the strokes in the lightest places of the image, these places are covered with a protective varnish, excluding them from the etching processes in the future. Then the plate is subjected to the second etching, the areas of the next tone gradation are varnished. Thanks to this, strokes are obtained with different depths. Finally, the varnish is removed.
To the numbermechanicalmethods belongs to the incisor engraving. it the most ancient type of in-depth engraving on metal, which consists in manually cutting out strokes with the help of a special tool - a cutter (engraver). The material for the manufacture of the form is copper or steel plates with a thickness of 2.5 to 4 mm with rounded edges. A resin primer is applied to the smoothly polished surface of the plate, onto which the pattern is transferred, after which it is scratched with a needle so that it only slightly touches the metal surface. The contours of the image are engraved with a engraver. The deeper the cutter has entered, the thicker the colorful line on the print is.
The listed methods can be used to make printing plates when reproducing single-color and multi-color images on a print. Most often, etching is used to reproduce multi-color images.
In modern printing, the technological process of manufacturing printing plates for gravure printing is based on a combination of photochemical, electrochemical and mechanical processes. It consists of the following operations: 1) preparation of uniform material; 2) production of transparencies of individual elements of the photoform and their installation; 3) copying - transferring the montage to the form material; 4) etching the form and preparing it for printing.
Printing plates for gravure printing are made directly on the plate cylinder of the printing machine. Unlike other types of printing in gravure printing, transparencies are copied not directly onto plate material, but onto pigment paper, followed by transfer of the gelatin layer of pigment paper to the copper jacket of the plate cylinder. The largest depth of the printing elements in this case reaches 80 microns, and the minimum - 6 microns. This is the range of change in the thickness of the ink layer, which creates halftones on the print. This printing plate making process is known as the pigment plate making process. Recently, a non-pigmented method of transferring an image by direct laser engraving of the original image directly on the plate cylinder has been widely used.
Currently, for the production of printed products using the gravure printing method, only high-performance rotary multi-section web printing machines are used.
High productivity is an important advantage of gravure printing. high speeds printing is possible due to the continuity of the working surface of the printing plate (there are no seams and grooves) and the use of paints based on volatile solvents, which ensure their fast fixing.
However, in modern conditions gravure printing is used relatively rarely in the production of printed materials. This is due to the high cost of this method, which leads to the concentration of large production capacities, which in many cases makes it difficult to use them at a sufficiently effective level, as well as the significant manual labor costs that exist here, especially at the final (control - proofreading) stage of manufacturing plate cylinders. In view of the considerable complexity and duration of the production of plate cylinders and printing plates used in gravure printing, the use of this method is beneficial only when printing large runs - from about 70 to 250 thousand copies.
impressions.
However, intaglio printing is widely used in the manufacture of mass magazine products with a large number of illustrations, albums with photo illustrations, postcards, and portraits.
Letterpress. This method has been used by printers for over a thousand years. The first printing forms were flat wooden boards with a flat and smooth surface, on which the image was obtained by cutting (deepening) non-printing blank elements. Letterpress was thus achieved by deepening those areas of the printing plate
which should not be inked. At the same time, the printing process was carried out
from elevated areas. This made it possible, when rolling elastic rollers with ink, to apply it selectively, only to the printing elements, and to transfer ink from them to the printed surface.
Due to the simplicity and speed of production of printing forms (especially for text reproduction), good quality products and high productivity letterpress printing is widely used for printing newspapers, magazines, books and color illustrations. Characteristic features Letterpress prints are characterized by high definition of image elements, good contrast and slight relief on reverse side sheet.
Modern letterpress text forms are made on typesetting
and phototypesetting machines.
Letterpress printing plates can be primary and secondary. Primary, or original, letterpress plates are flat plates designed to be printed. To primary forms also includes flexible forms, the relief image on which is obtained by etching gaps on a metal plate or by processing printing forms in a photopolymer layer deposited on a substrate. Secondary forms are otherwise called stereotypes. They are made from primary, original forms for the purpose of their reproduction and production of round forms for printing on a rotary printing machine.
Modern secondary letterpress plates are made from metal, plastic, or rubber. Printing from flat forms is carried out on crucible, the so-called flatbed printing machines; from round shapes - on sheet or role rotary machines. Today, the method of offset printing has become widespread. Its essence lies in the fact that the image from the printing plate is first transferred to a rubber sheet (cylinder lined with rubber), and from it to paper. Modern rotary letterpress printing machines allow you to print illustrated multi-color newspapers, magazines, books on a continuous paper web up to 2 m wide at a speed of up to 15 m/s. Thus, the letterpress printing method is mainly used in high-volume presses.
Screen printing. This printing method was developed by Thomas Edison in 1875. It has found wide application in small and medium-sized printing devices. The principle of printing is to transfer an image using a printing plate, which is a grid (stencil), through the cells of the printing elements of which printing ink is pressed. The printed mesh form can be made of polymers, silk, copper. In gap areas, it is covered with a protective layer. Since the ink layer can reach a large thickness
(up to 80 microns and above), screen printing used for marking products, in the manufacture printed circuit boards, printing books for the blind. There are several varieties of this method: classic screen printing and rotary (risographic) printing.
Short run printing systems
Short-run printing devices include various printers and copiers. Desktop printers are divided into matrix, inkjet and laser devices.
Matrix (needle) printers. Such printers are among the earliest automatic printing devices. The principle of printing dot-matrix printers is as follows: an electrical impulse is supplied to the element of the print head (the so-called needle) at the right time, which activates the electromagnet. There is a blow to the ink ribbon, and an imprint appears on the paper. The size of the needle print determines the graphic resolution of the dot matrix printer when printing. An important role is played by the number of needles in the print head: the more there are, the higher the quality and speed of printing.
Modern needle printers use a printhead
with 9 or 24 needles controlled by magnets. The speed of the latter and the number of printing needles mainly determine the speed of printing. Printing is carried out when the head (carriage) moves horizontally with its needles through an ink ribbon tucked into a special cassette (cartridge). The transition to the next line is achieved by a synchronized movement of the paper.
Modern printers typically have a print dot size of about 0.25 mm and a vertical (along the sheet) resolution of about 180 dots per inch (dpi). The performance of these printers when printing with the simplest fonts, especially 24-point fonts, is very high and reaches several tens of A4 sheets per minute. However, printing with more complex fonts reduces the speed of document output by several times (performance in the range of 25 - 500 characters per minute is provided).
Needle printers have the flexibility to output other fonts using appropriate drivers and different character matrix formats.
When printing in color on needle printers, a multi-color ribbon is used, on which several strips of different dyes are applied. To obtain shades, the image is rasterized. Raster ( German Raster - lattice) is used for structural transformation of a directed light beam. There are 1) transparent rasters, 2) in the form of alternating transparent and opaque elements, 3) reflective rasters with specularly reflective and absorbing (or scattering) elements.
Screening is used when reproducing halftone originals at the stage of copying or photographing in order to obtain a small-dot image. Despite the versatility of matrix technology, it is best used for printing text. Modern dot-matrix printers provide for working with A4 or A3 paper formats, have various ways of feeding paper, they print on the forward and reverse stroke of the carriage, and have a convenient user interface.
The cost of printing on dot matrix printers is low: low cost affects Supplies and Maintenance. This is a big plus compared to other types of printers. home distinguishing feature matrix printers is that it is possible to print through carbon paper, unlike others, where it is necessary to print copies sequentially, which increases the cost of printing. Dot matrix printers are not demanding on paper quality.
Printers based on thermal printing technology, in terms of their design, they are very similar to dot-matrix printers (they use a print head equipped with a matrix of heating elements and special paper impregnated with a heat-sensitive dye). The thermal head matrix produced using thick-film technology can have a higher resolution (up to 200 dpi), but the inertia and a number of other fundamental limitations of the printing process do not allow a significant increase in the print speed, which is usually 40-120 characters per minute. The disadvantages of such a printer include insufficient brightness, image contrast and the need to use special expensive paper. The advantages of thermal printers are a low noise level during operation, compactness, reliability, and the absence of refillable consumables. Thermal printing technology is not widely used today.
Inkjet printers. A higher class of printers form with inkjet printers. Fundamentally with Inkjet printers differ from dot matrix and thermal printers in the print head. The inkjet technology underlying this class of printers uses a method of "ejecting" ink droplets onto the paper. The print matrix of such a printer is a set of nozzles to which ink tanks and control mechanisms are connected. The disadvantage of inkjet printers is the high requirements for inks, and the image quality is highly dependent on the type of paper.
Modern mass-market inkjet printers typically have a resolution of 600 or 720 dpi and can print reasonably well on plain paper and high quality on specialty paper. Recently, inkjet printers are approaching laser printers in terms of print quality and speed. The latest models of inkjet printers print 4 - 5 pages per minute, and some models - 10 - 12 pages per minute.
Laser printers. The highest quality and technically advanced are laser printers. They use the photosensitivity property of a number of materials that change their surface electrostatic charge when exposed to light. To implement this process, in addition to the paper feed mechanism, these printers contain a light-sensitive drum, a mirror scanning system, focusing devices and a laser diode (or an array of LEDs).
After charging and point-by-point illumination of the photosensitive drum, corresponding to the image being formed, a special coloring powder - toner - is supplied and fixed on it in accordance with the distribution of electric charge. Next, the paper rolls over the drum and removes the toner from it. The final fixing of the image on paper is achieved by heating it to the temperature of the melting of the toner.
The features of this process are characterized by the small size of the dot of the image matrix, which is reflected in the characteristics of the resolution of laser printers, which in practice is
300 - 1200 dpi. The high resolution of printers allows them to be used for printing a variety of text and graphic information, up to the production of polygraphic layouts and forms.
To ensure the printing of graphics, laser devices usually have a buffer memory of up to 1 MB.
These printers use plain and high-quality paper, print text and graphics at a speed of 4 to 20 (or more) A4 (A3) sheets per minute, i.e. output text information at speeds of the order of 160 - 2000 characters per minute and are almost silent at work.
Laser printers require skilled maintenance, and the cost of their products includes operating and depreciation costs. Laser printing is more expensive than other groups of printers, however, the prices of laser printers are constantly decreasing, and the costs are justified by the very high quality of products approaching
to the printing level.
The principle of operation of a photocopier is largely similar
with the principle of operation of a laser printer.
The role of a laser beam in a copier is played by a light flux reflected from a system of mirrors, carrying information about chiaroscuro to a special drum, which is otherwise called a “photoconductor” or “photoreceptor”. Under the influence of light, a latent image is formed on the drum, corresponding to the image of the copied original. At the same time, toner remains on the illuminated areas, and when the sheet passes the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper. The drums are covered with various materials, both inorganic (selenium, arsenium triselenide, etc.) and organic.
The drum is also called by the name of the coating, for example: “selenium” drum. Since when transferring toner to paper, ozone is released, which disrupts the normal composition of air, an important parameter is the amount of ozone released. The less ozone is emitted, the better the atmosphere in the office. Organic drums emit less ozone than non-organic drums and reproduce midtones better. In addition, their production is much cheaper. At the end of their service life, organic drums do not require special disposal, as they do not pollute the environment.
Review questions for the first topic
1. The main stages of the formation of printing equipment and technology.
2. Methods of modern printing.
3. Systems of large- and medium-circulation printing.
4. Systems of small-circulation printing.
5. The main stages of printing production.
Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY PHOTOS
Optics in photography
The expressive optical means of photography include: 1) various special lenses, the focal length of which is shorter or longer than the focal length of a normal lens, which provides the correct perspective, the usual perception of space, and 2) light -
and color filters.
Short throw lenses allow you to increase the angle of the image. In this case, the shorter the focal length of the lens, the larger the image angle. Using such lenses, the photographer has the ability to create the so-called spherical perspective. These are spectacular shots capturing vast spaces. Short-focus lenses are also used when shooting mass scenes, when it is necessary to convey a huge space with a glance. Such lenses have the ability to distort objects, exaggerate the perspective at various camera inclinations. These include unique lenses, called "fisheye", giving a coverage of space at 180 °.
Long lenses, on the contrary, reduce the image angle and have a shallow depth of field. They are used in the event that it is necessary to give a close-up of an object located at a great distance from the shooting point, to bring the background closer to the foreground. Thus, it is possible to achieve the feeling of a closed limited space.
With the help of wide-angle lenses, it is possible to hypertrophy the forms of captured objects, creating one of the photographic grotesque variants. Photographic lenses differ not only in the size of the angle, but also in the photographic pattern. Soft-focus optics soften sharp transitions from light to shadow, giving the image a more picturesque character. There are lenses that produce sharp, hard images in a graphic manner.
Optical expressive means include various light and color filters. There are filters with which you can get effects based on such physical phenomena like diffusion and diffraction. Diffractive filters create a light pattern, the nature of which will depend on the configuration of the lines applied to the glass. A diffraction circle on a filter can turn a light source in the frame into a solid, glowing spot or a fireball, while a diffraction ring creates a beautiful halo around the light source. If the pattern on the diffractive filter is in the form of a cross, then the rays coming from the light source form a cross in the photograph.
Several lines intersecting at one point will create a decorative beam beam effect in the photo frame. There may be several similar patterns on the filter, but in order to obtain the desired effect, it is necessary to visually combine the intersection point of the applied lines with the light source. Diffusion light filters can be gauze, tulle, nylon nets, glasses lubricated with a fatty substance. Such light filters, as if blurring the light, create the feeling of a light haze enveloping objects, or immersing objects in fog. It is possible to combine the phenomena of diffusion and diffraction on one light filter. So, for example, part of the surface of the light filter can be smeared with a fatty substance, which will cause light to diffuse and apply a pattern or sign on a clean area. Thus, part of the image in the photograph will be shrouded in fog, softening the sharp transitions of light and shadow, blurring
Under the conditions of the birth and formation of monopoly capitalism, the role of the mass media increased noticeably, which predetermined and determined progress in the field of book printing. Technical achievements in printing found expression in the mechanization of printing and typesetting processes, the development of lithography, the emergence of printing engineering as an independent branch of machine and factory production. Nemirovsky EL Essays on the history of printing technology. Italic.-No. 1-98.-P.43.
One of the greatest achievements in printing technology of the XIX century. was the first cylindrical press, invented as early as 1811 by the German Friedrich Koenig and his compatriot Bauer. Earlier in manual machine flat boards were used for printing, first wooden and then metal. On a flat board (thaler) a painted form of a set was placed, to which a sheet of paper was pressed with another board (piano) with the help of a deckle. In the early printing machine Koenig and Bauer proposed a fundamentally different design. A sheet of paper, wound on a cylinder-drum, was rolled over a form fixed on a thaler with a set that received paint from a system of rotating rollers. For the first time, the reciprocating movement of the pian, which pressed the paper to the taler, was replaced by the rotational movement of the cylinder, the supply and application of paint to the form were mechanized. The new rapid press allowed to significantly increase the productivity of the printing process. If on a manual machine it was possible to print 100 impressions per hour, then the Koenig and Bauer machine produced over 800 impressions.
This invention had a huge impact on the development of printing engineering. The first plant of this profile was created in 1817 in Germany. On its basis, the Schnellpressenfabrik Konig und Beeg, the world's largest association for the production of printing machines, subsequently arose.
In the second half of the XIX century. the technological processes of printing production became more complicated, new designs of printing equipment were improved and developed, which made it possible to mechanize a number of basic production operations. Stefanov S.I. Technology and civilization. Bulletin of technology in the field of printing and printed advertising. - 2006. - No. 1. P. 2. Improvements were also made to the Koenig printing press: its kinematics and the technology for manufacturing individual parts and assemblies were improved. The trajectory of the movement of the thaler has changed, the composition of the elastic mass for colorful rollers has changed, the main components of which are glycerin and gelatin. The problem of registration and seasoning was solved. In the first case, the exact ratio of printed strips on both sides of the sheet and on the spread was ensured; in the second, a careful fit of the paper to the surface of the feed drum was achieved. In addition, methods have been widely adopted automatic feeding paper on the cylinder and then eat it. With the use of a steam engine, which was later replaced by an electric drive, the drives of printing machines changed qualitatively. As a result of significant design changes, the performance of Koenig machines has increased.
In 1863, the inventor William Bullock created a fundamentally new rotary printing press. Bullock's machine printed on both sides of a paper web fed to a cylinder which pressed it against another cylinder with a stereotype on it. Thus, for the first time the entire technological process was provided by the rotation of the cylinders, which eliminated the reasons that limited the performance of Koenig's machines. Already the first samples of Bullock's rotary machine gave 15 thousand impressions per hour; in the future, significant design changes made it possible to double this figure.
In parallel with the development of printing, the technology of casting letters and whole words was improved. Back in 1838 in New York, the inventor Bres created a device for casting letters, which became the prototype of the universal type casting machine of the early 20th century, the best models of which made it possible to make several tens of thousands of printed characters in lines and stripes in one day. The technology for manufacturing punches and dies was further developed. The systematization and ordering of fonts were carried out.
The increase in printed output required the acceleration of the typesetting process. The manual compositor, who typed no more than a thousand letters per hour, that is, 25 lines, was replaced by typesetting machines with a keyboard arranged according to the principle of a modern typewriter.
An outstanding role in the development of typesetting machines belongs to Russian inventors. In 1866, mechanic P.P. Klyaginsky created the original "automatic compositor". I.N. Livchak and D.A. Timiryazev made a great contribution to the creation and development of die-beating machines. Romano F. Modern technologies publishing and printing industry. - M.: 2006.- C. 454 In 1870, engineer M.I. Alisov built the first typesetting machines, the speed of which was 80-120 characters per minute.
The first typesetting machine, which was widely used, was designed in 1886 in the USA by O. Mergenthaler and named the "linotype". Two years later, the Canadians Rogers and Bright created a new model of the casting machine - the "printer". In 1892, built Lanston's "monotype", and Scudder's "monoline" in 1893. The invention and rapid spread of typesetting machines, as well as the development and creation of phototypesetting structures, made it possible not only to increase the number of output products, but also to make significant changes in the artistic design of the book .
The labor-intensive and expensive copper engraving was replaced by lithography, discovered by Alois Senefelder. In lithographic printing, impressions were made by transferring ink under pressure from a non-embossed surface directly onto paper. The new method, as a kind of flat printing, was determined by the position of the printed elements in the same plane with the entire surface of the printing plate. The lithographic printing method quickly monopolized the printing industry. The most widely used artistic lithography.
The intensification and significant expansion of printing production caused in the second half of the 19th century. the emergence of new, more advanced models of printing engineering. Specialized associations for the production of printing equipment were created. The largest of them were: BrepMaHnn "Schnellpresseniabrik Heidelberg" (1850), "Faber und Schleicker" (1871), in Italy - "Nebiolo" (1852), in the USA - "Goss" (1885) , Milet (1890).
In Russia, along with equipment imported from abroad in the 80-90s of the XIX century. developed its own printing industry. Initially, the production of printing machines and machine tools was concentrated at the Izhevsk plant and the Aleksandrovskaya manufactory. Later, the St. Petersburg plant of I. Goldberg began to manufacture them. In 1897, for the first time in Russia, a machine for printing securities was invented and built, designed by the technician I.I. Orlov. The image from the printing plate was first transferred to the elastic rollers, and then to the assembly form, from which the impression was made.
New types of printing developed rapidly: woodcut, linocut, zincography, squeegee tifdruk, screen and gravure printing. Along with large printing machines, a significant number of special models appeared for printing cards, letterheads, covers, and various special documentation. The production of text and illustrative printing forms was improved, finishing production processes: stitching, binding, embossing.
Most feature progress in the field of printing engineering was the creation of new models of printing presses with significantly improved technical specifications. In parallel with this, typesetting and phototypesetting machines were improved.
The technology of illustrating printed publications was further developed.