Under the conditions of the birth and development of monopoly capitalism, the role of means mass media which predetermined and determined the progress in the field of printing. Technical achievements in printing found expression in the mechanization of printing and typesetting processes, the development of lithography, the emergence of printing engineering as an independent branch of machine and factory production. Nemirovskiy EL Essays on the history of printing technology. Italic.-No. 1-98.-P.43.
One of the greatest achievements in printing technology of the XIX century. was the first cylindrical press, invented as early as 1811 by the German Friedrich Koenig and his compatriot Bauer. Previously, flat boards were used in a manual printing press, first wooden and then metal. On a flat board (thaler) a painted form of a set was placed, to which a sheet of paper was pressed with another board (piano) with the help of a deckle. In the early printing machine Koenig and Bauer proposed a fundamentally different design. A sheet of paper, wound on a cylinder-drum, was rolled over a form fixed on a thaler with a set that received paint from a system of rotating rollers. For the first time, the reciprocating movement of the pian, which pressed the paper to the taler, was replaced by the rotational movement of the cylinder, the supply and application of paint to the form were mechanized. The new rapid press allowed to significantly increase the productivity of the printing process. If on a manual machine it was possible to print 100 impressions per hour, then the Koenig and Bauer machine produced over 800 impressions.
This invention had a huge impact on the development of printing engineering. The first plant of this profile was created in 1817 in Germany. On its basis, the Schnellpressenfabrik Konig und Beeg, the world's largest association for the production of printing machines, subsequently arose.
In the second half of the XIX century. the technological processes of printing production became more complicated, new designs of printing equipment were improved and developed, which made it possible to mechanize a number of basic production operations. Stefanov S.I. Technology and civilization. Bulletin of technology in the field of printing and printed advertising. - 2006. - No. 1. P. 2. Improvements were also made to the Koenig printing press: its kinematics and the technology for manufacturing individual parts and assemblies were improved. The trajectory of the movement of the thaler has changed, the composition of the elastic mass for colorful rollers has changed, the main components of which are glycerin and gelatin. The problem of registration and seasoning was solved. In the first case, the exact ratio of printed strips on both sides of the sheet and on the spread was ensured; in the second, a careful fit of the paper to the surface of the feed drum was achieved. In addition, methods for automatically feeding paper to the cylinder and then removing it were widely introduced. With the use of a steam engine, which was later replaced by an electric drive, the drives of printing machines changed qualitatively. As a result of significant design changes, the performance of Koenig machines has increased.
In 1863, the inventor William Bullock created a fundamentally new rotary printing press. Bullock's machine printed on both sides of a paper web fed to a cylinder which pressed it against another cylinder with a stereotype on it. Thus, for the first time, the entire technological process was provided by the rotation of the cylinders, which eliminated the reasons that limited the productivity of Koenig's machines. Already the first samples of Bullock's rotary machine gave 15 thousand impressions per hour; in the future, significant design changes made it possible to double this figure.
In parallel with the development of printing, the technology of casting letters and whole words was improved. Back in 1838 in New York, the inventor Bres created a device for casting letters, which became the prototype of the universal type casting machine of the early 20th century, the best models of which made it possible to make several tens of thousands of printed characters in lines and stripes in one day. The technology for manufacturing punches and dies was further developed. The systematization and ordering of fonts were carried out.
Increase printed matter needed to speed up the recruitment process. The manual compositor, who typed no more than a thousand letters per hour, that is, 25 lines, was replaced by typesetting machines with a keyboard arranged on the principle of a modern typewriter.
An outstanding role in the development of typesetting machines belongs to Russian inventors. In 1866, mechanic P.P. Klyaginsky created the original "automatic compositor". I.N. Livchak and D.A. Timiryazev made a great contribution to the creation and development of die-beating machines. Romano F. Modern technologies publishing and printing industry. - M.: 2006.- C. 454 In 1870, engineer M.I. Alisov built the first typesetting machines, the speed of which was 80-120 characters per minute.
The first typesetting machine, which was widely used, was designed in 1886 in the USA by O. Mergenthaler and named the "linotype". Two years later, the Canadians Rogers and Bright created a new model of the casting machine - the "printer". In 1892, built Lanston's "monotype", and Scudder's "monoline" in 1893. The invention and rapid spread of typesetting machines, as well as the development and creation of phototypesetting structures, made it possible not only to increase the number of output products, but also to make significant changes in the artistic design of the book .
The labor-intensive and expensive copper engraving was replaced by lithography, discovered by Alois Senefelder. In lithographic printing, impressions were made by transferring ink under pressure from a non-embossed surface directly onto paper. The new way as a variety flat print was determined by the position of the printed elements in the same plane with the entire surface of the printing plate. The lithographic printing method quickly monopolized the printing industry. The most widely used artistic lithography.
The intensification and significant expansion of printing production caused in the second half of the 19th century. the emergence of new, more advanced models of printing engineering. Specialized associations for the production of printing equipment were created. The largest of them were: BrepMaHnn "Schnellpresseniabrik Heidelberg" (1850), "Faber und Schleicker" (1871), in Italy - "Nebiolo" (1852), in the USA - "Goss" (1885) , Milet (1890).
In Russia, along with equipment imported from abroad in the 80-90s of the XIX century. developed its own printing industry. Initially, the production of printing machines and machine tools was concentrated at the Izhevsk plant and the Aleksandrovskaya manufactory. Later, the St. Petersburg plant of I. Goldberg began to manufacture them. In 1897, a printing machine was first invented and built in Russia. valuable papers, designed by technician I.I. Orlov. The image from the printing plate was first transferred to the elastic rollers, and then to the assembly form, from which the impression was made.
New types of printing developed rapidly: woodcut, linocut, zincography, squeegee tifdruk, screen and gravure printing. Along with large printing machines, a significant number of special models appeared for printing cards, letterheads, covers, and various special documentation. The production of text and illustrative printing forms was improved, finishing production processes: stitching, binding, embossing.
The most characteristic feature of progress in the field of printing engineering was the creation of new models of printing presses with significantly improved technical specifications. In parallel with this, typesetting and phototypesetting machines were improved.
The technology of illustrating printed publications was further developed.
Introduction
Chapter I. Initial stages of development of polygraphy
1The origin and development of printing
Chapter II. Industrialization of the printing industry
1 Development of paper production
2 Development of printing technology
3 Printing in the 20th century
Chapter III. Modern printing business
Conclusion
List of used sources and literature
Introduction
The first printing technology, and hence the printing industry, originated in ancient China at the end of the 2nd century. By this time, the eastern sages already had: paper, paint and the ability to cut texts on various surfaces. On these three whales, technology began to develop, without which modern man cannot imagine his existence.
Printing - a branch of technology, a set technical means for multiple reproduction of text material and graphic images. Unlike other methods of multiple reproduction (for example, blueprinting), printing methods are characterized by the transfer of an ink layer from a reservoir to a receiving surface (most often paper), and the formation of the layer is carried out in accordance with a predetermined original to be reproduced. The printing industry is also understood as a branch of industry - the printing industry, which unites industrial enterprises that produce printed products (books, newspapers, magazines, posters, maps, etc.). The printing industry, or the printing industry, is the material and technical base of the publishing business.
Printing has gone through a long and difficult path of development. From the origin of printing and paper in ancient China to the emergence of the latest digital printing technologies, graphics, holograms, high-tech printing machines in our time.
The subject of this term paper are the historical stages in the development of printing. Thus, the purpose of the work is to study all the passed historical stages of development and improvement of the printing industry.
Objectives of the course work:
consider the initial stages of the development of printing
trace the stages of the origin and development of printing
identify the features of the development of paper production, as the basis of printing activities
identify technical developments in the development of printing
analyze the trends of the modern printing business.
The theoretical basis of this work was the publications of Nemirovsky E.L. , Kagan B.V. and Stefanova S.I. Also in their works, Romano F. and Vernandsky V.I. considered the historical stages of the development of printing.
Chapter I. Initial stages of development of polygraphy
.1 The origin and development of printing
Printing has gone through a long and difficult path of development. It all started a long time ago in the Celestial country of China. The oldest surviving book was printed there in 868 AD. and is called the "Diamond Sutra". This book was created by Wang Ji and distributed for free in the name of Buddhist spiritual values. It is difficult to call it a book, in the modern sense, since the text is printed on separate sheets of paper folded into a long scroll. The need for the frequent use of special seals to transfer religious texts and images to paper led to the fact that in the 5th century in China a special paint appeared, the properties of which were suitable for book printing. However, the large circulation of texts and the material on which they were applied (primarily the columns of temples) did not allow to fully satisfy the ancient craving for enlightenment, and Chinese thinkers began to use new technologies. This printing method is called "xylography". And with the help of this primitive technology, real works of art were created. The basis of such a seal is very simple: the text was written by hand on thin paper, this sheet was then applied face down to a wooden board. The ink was transferred to the board, and the master engraved, deepening those places where they were not. Then paint was applied to the board, and with the help of it it was possible to make an impression. The master could engrave such a plate in 20 minutes.
In the 11th century, the Chinese alchemist Pi-Shen first found a universal solution to many problems of typography, developing a technology for the production, typesetting and reuse of type, making it from handy tools: a mixture of clay and glue. If the secretive Chinese have been using their unique discovery since the 2nd century, then papermaking technology reached Europe only thanks to the close connection of Italy and Spain with the Arab world. Fortunately, favorable cultural and economic conditions allowed Europeans to master and develop book printing.
Before the invention of printing, inscriptions were made on stone, clay, wood, birch bark, leather, parchment, papyrus, fabric, or on the wax layer of tablets. With the invention and spread of paper-making technology, handwritten scrolls and books appeared. Book rewriting has become a profession. There were repositories of handwritten editions. Correspondence and decrees were sealed, as a rule, with the help of seals of kings, emperors, military leaders and statesmen of high rank. These were prints on a material softened when heated, which retained the image after cooling.
Typography began from the moment when a coloring matter was applied to a relief form and a series of identical prints were made. This was an important step in the development of the media, which contributed to the development of crafts, industry, science, technology and culture.
The monastic libraries store texts of the 9th-10th centuries, printed from engraved wooden molds. Between 1041 and 1048, the Chinese blacksmith Bi Sheng pioneered printing with movable type, the signs of which were made from baked clay. In 1403 in Korea they began to make a font from bronze. Between 1436 and 1444, Johannes Gutenberg of the German city of Mainz invented the matrix and laid the foundations for a printing method using movable type, which was used without any significant changes until the 20th century. For each letter or sign, Gutenberg made an engraving punch from hard metal, with the help of which he made a matrix for casting the corresponding letter from softer metal. The font was cast from an alloy of lead, tin and antimony. Finished letters were laid out on typesetting cash desks. To obtain impressions, Gutenberg used a hand-held wooden screw press, which resembled a wine press used in winemaking. He received the ink for printing from a mixture of wood (pine) soot and linseed oil. It was applied to the printing surface with leather pads. In order for the paint to be absorbed evenly, the paper was pre-moistened with water. It was in the 30-50s of the 15th century that the notorious Johannes Guttenberg used it. At first, the father of European publishing used a printing press. The new technology he developed was a significant step forward and had a number of advantages over the Chinese, despite the low pace of work. However, the separation of printing operations in two stages made it possible to produce first one half of the page, and then the second, which significantly changed the situation.
Gutenberg strictly adhered to the traditions of the handwritten book. Printing technology quickly spread throughout Europe. A number of attempts were made to improve the wooden machine. Having retained its design, Wilhelm Haas, a typewriter from Basel, in 1787 created the first all-metal printing press, which made it possible to improve the quality of prints. As early as the beginning of the 17th century. the idea of using a printing cylinder to facilitate the manual labor of a printer arose, but it was not put into practice until 1811, when the German printer and inventor Friedrich Koenig manufactured the first mechanical printing press with a steam-powered cylinder. The next major success came in 1818, when Koenig and his assistant Andreas Bauer patented a two-cylinder duplex press. On November 29, 1814, the first issue of The Times was printed for the first time in London. This machine could print up to 800 impressions per hour (against 150 on a manual machine and 400 on a crucible machine). When using printing presses, the printing form determined both the preparation time for the publication and the cost of production, as well as the technology and quality of printing.
Printing began to cooperate closely with other industries. The dependence of printers on manufacturers of equipment, consumables and printed materials has increased. This process reached its maximum at the end of the 20th century. Printing presses, defining investment, productivity, printing technology, print quality and features finished products, have become the main link in the printing industry.
Printing as an activity originated in ancient China. Gradually, the technologies used in this area changed, which subsequently led to the emergence of a new type of industry - the printing industry. It is the discoveries made on early stages development of printing and printing laid the foundation for further activities and inventions.
typography paper polygraphy
Chapter II. Industrialization of the printing industry
.1 Development of the paper industry
Paper is a very ancient invention. It was known in ancient China. The father of paper is considered to be the Chinese Pai Lun, who invented paper in 105 AD. For a long time, hand-made sheet paper remained the only material for printing books. In the production of paper, paper pulp was scooped from large vats with a frame with a grid stretched over it. The dimensions of the frame determined the format of the paper, and the skill of the craftsman determined its quality. Since the printed form was the basis of everything and it was from n
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V.L. Khmylev
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY
MASS MEDIA
Tutorial
Khmylev V.L. Technique and technology of mass media: Proc. allowance /Vol. polytechnic un - t. - Tomsk, 2003. - 107 p.
The manual briefly outlines the theoretical issues of the course "Technique and technology of the media." For each topic, both theoretical material and questions for repetition and consolidation are presented. The manual was prepared at the Department of Cultural Studies and Social Communication of the Faculty of Humanities, complies with the State Educational Standard and is intended for students of the specialty "Public Relations" 350400 of the Institute of Distance Education.
Published by order of the Editorial and Publishing Council
Tomsk Polytechnic University.
Reviewers:
V.M. Ushakov - Professor of the Department of Applied Mechanics of the Institute of Economics and Entrepreneurship of the TSPU, Academician of MANEB, Doctor of Technical Sciences.
V.V. Bendersky - General Director of CJSC "Tomsky Vestnik", candidate of technical sciences.
Templan 2003
Tomsk Polytechnic University, 2003
INTRODUCTION .................................................. ................................................. ................................ four
Theme I
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PRINTING .............................................. .................................. 5
Formation of printing equipment and technology .............................................. .... 5
Methods of modern printing ............................................................... .............................................. 9
Modern publishing and printing technology .............................................. . fifteen
The main stages of printing production .............................................................. ........ twenty
Questions for repetition to the first topic .............................................. .............................. 22
Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PHOTOGRAPHY.................................................................. .................... 23
Formation of photographic technique and technology .............................................. .23
Modern photographic technology and
photographic methods ................................................................ ................................................. .29
Expressive means of photography .................................................................. .............................. 32
Optics in photography ............................................... ................................................. ......... 36
Setting Optical and Exposure Parameters............................................................... .. 38
Questions for repetition to the second topic .............................................. ........................... 52
Theme III
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF CINEMA ............................................... ................................................. 53
Filming equipment and visual means of cinema .............................................. 53
Peculiarities of shooting a movie for TV .............................................................. ...... 56
Questions for review to the third topic .............................................. ................................... 60
Theme IV
RADIO BROADCASTING TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY .................................................................. ............. 60
Technical means of broadcasting .............................................................. .............................. 60
Radio station and its equipment .............................................................. ............................................. 64
Expressive means of radio .............................................................. ......................................... 70
Production of basic radio programs .................................................................. ......................... 73
News broadcasts .................................................................. ................................................... 73
Live speeches and interviews ............................................... ......................... 76
Telephone interviews and recorded comments .............................................................. ............... 76
Correspondent materials .................................................................. ......................................... 76
Programming the broadcast grid .................................................................. ........................... 78
Questions for review for the fourth topic .............................................. ......................... 78
Theme V
TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY OF TELEVISION.................................................................. ................. 79
Technical means of television broadcasting .......................................................... ............ 79
Modern television technology .................................................................. ............................... 84
Transmitting television camera, video camera .............................................. .........95
Video recorder. Videocassettes and videodiscs .................................................................. ......... 100
Television studio and its equipment .................................................................. ............................................... 108
Questions for repetition to the fifth topic .............................................. .............................. 110
LIST OF USED LITERATURE .............................................................. ............ 110
INTRODUCTION
The development of various types of communications, the formation of the information society, the growing globalization of national and international relations at the beginning of the 21st century, increased interest in the integrated study of information technology and technology. In educational terms, this trend was expressed in the appearance in the curricula of the humanities faculties with the specialty "Journalism", "Public Relations", special courses "Media Technique and Technology". In this regard, the proposed textbook is intended to promote independent study by students in the humanities of both the technical means of the mass media system and the techniques and technological features of the work of a modern journalist.
The need for this manual is due to the fact that so far there has been no manual in the educational literature that is fully consistent with the program of the State Educational Standard for this discipline for the specialty "Public Relations". The publication of this textbook will help mastering the extensive material on the course "Media Technique and Technology" by students not only distance, but full-time - part-time and full-time forms of education.
Structurally, the study guide "Media Technique and Technology" is presented in the form of a package containing five topics, respectively, devoted to the consideration of the technique and technology of periodicals, photography, film, broadcasting and television. In these sections, the basic principles of technical systems that are in the arsenal of a journalist are considered. Here the student can get the information necessary for the professional use of modern technical means of information dissemination.
The textbook was written at the Department of Cultural Studies and Social Communication for students of the IDO TPU studying in the specialty "Public Relations".
Theme I
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY OF PRINTING
Modern printing methods
In the modern printing industry, several types of printing are used - offset, letterpress, gravure, screen, etc. Their names reflect the features of the technological principles underlying various printing devices.
Offset printing. This method is currently the most common and technologically advanced printing method. For many decades, more than half of publishing and advertising products have been printed in offset.
Offset printing ( from English. offset) is a type of flat printing in which ink is transferred from a printing plate to the surface of a rubber web. From it, it goes to paper or other printed material. This allows you to print thin layers of ink on rough papers. Principle offset printing was proposed in 1905 in the USA. The first offset printing machine was also created there. For each working cycle of such a machine, the printing plate is moistened, ink is rolled onto the printing elements, paper is fed, printing itself and the finished print is output to the receiving table.
Offset printing later became widespread in the world of printing due to the mechanization of form processes, the high productivity of printing machines, which made it possible not only to significantly increase the circulation of publications, but also to print a variety of printing products, including multi-color ones.
The principle of offset printing technology is based on the selective wetting of the printing elements with ink, and the blank ones with an aqueous solution, which is achieved by applying films with different molecular surface properties that stably perceive either moisture or ink on the surface of the printed and blank areas of the form.
During the printing process, the form is alternately moistened with an aqueous solution or ink, then the image is transferred under pressure to the surface of a rubber plate or roller, and then to paper. Those. with this double image transfer, the paper does not come into direct contact with the printing plate. This technology has dramatically reduced the pressure required for printing, reduced plate wear, increased printing speed and improved image quality.
Offset printing uses monometallic and polymetallic printing plates. Monometallic printing plates are aluminum or zinc plates that undergo complex electrochemical preparation on automated electroplating lines to increase the adsorption capacity and increase the wear resistance of its surface.
Polymetallic forms are created on the basis of two metals with different molecular-surface properties: copper - to create stable printing elements and nickel (it can be replaced with chromium, stainless steel) - for blank elements. Polymetallic plates are usually made on an aluminum or steel base, on which a film of copper up to 10 microns thick and nickel or chromium 1–3 microns thick is galvanized on the entire surface of the plate.
Printing elements on monometallic or polymetallic plates are created by a photochemical method, copying the image through a negative or transparencies onto a photosensitive copy layer. Such layers are made from macromolecular compounds (albumin, Siberian larch gum, polyvinyl alcohol) and chromium salts, or diazo compounds, with the addition of film-forming substances or photopolymers. The products of the photochemical reaction of chromium salts have a tanning effect. When copying on illuminated areas, the layer becomes tanned (hardens) and loses its ability to dissolve in water. From unlit areas protected by opaque elements of the negative or transparencies, the layer is removed during development, and an image is created on the plate - printing elements.
The greatest application is found for copy layers on diazo compounds, in which, under the action of light, photochemical decomposition occurs in illuminated areas and the copy layer is removed from the plate during development. When using photopolymers under the action of light in illuminated places, the polymerization of the copy layer occurs, which does not dissolve in water. From unlit areas, the layer is removed during development.
Copy layers applied in a thin layer on metal plates retain their properties for a long time (more than a year), therefore there are specialized enterprises where metals are prepared with subsequent application of light-sensitive layers.
Printing elements on a monometal are created on a copy layer, protected during copying by opaque areas of a transparencies and remaining after the development of a copy. On polymetallic plates, the copy layer is removed from the printing elements after development and remains as a temporary protection in the blank areas. Then the top metal (nickel or chromium) is chemically or electrochemically etched to the copper layer, after which the protective layer is removed from the gap elements. With all methods of making forms, after creating the printing elements, the blank elements are treated with a hydrophilizing solution to give them stable hydrophilic properties.
Separate operations for the manufacture of monometallic molds (development, washing, drying) are carried out on mechanized installation x, copy processing processes and production of polymetallic molds - on mechanized lines.
The invention of the offset printing revolutionized the printing industry. It became possible to obtain light and cheap printing forms on aluminum plates. The use of an offset blanket as an intermediate material that takes on the pressure of printing created a gentle mode for the printing plate itself, and a flexible printing plate made it possible to switch to the rotary principle of building printing machines, which led to a sharp increase in printing speed. For example, modern web-fed rotary offset printing machines operate at speeds up to 100,000 rpm of an offset cylinder with a circumference of more than a meter and a printed strip of up to 2 meters.
AT recent times a new so-called seamless offset printing technology began to be introduced into printing practice. In Western terminology, it is called "Sleeve - technology". This technology has made it possible to increase the speed of printing and ensure the continuous movement of the paper web during the printing process.
Gravure printing. With this method, printing and white space elements are at different heights. Gravure printing is based on filling ink in recessed printing areas. Printing elements on a printing plate for gravure printing are cells of different volumes, which are filled with liquid ink with low viscosity. The intaglio printing method is a printing technology in which the transfer of an image and text to a printed material is carried out from a printing plate on which the printing elements are recessed in relation to the blank elements. The gap elements are on the same level, interconnected and form an inextricable mesh surface.
Different tonality of the image on the print is provided by different thicknesses of the ink layer. At the same time, in the traditional method of intaglio printing, the depth of the printing elements is the greatest in the dark areas of the image, and the smallest in the light areas. Another characteristic of this printing method is that during the printing process, the gravure printing plate is completely filled with ink. That is, the ink fills all printing and all white space elements. Since intaglio printing ink is applied both to the printing and blank elements of the form, it is necessary to remove the ink from the surface of the blank elements of the printing form before making an impression. AT printing machines this operation is done using a thin knife made of elastic steel tape - a squeegee.
In the vast majority of cases, printing industrial scale gravure printing is carried out on rotary presses, and gravure printing plates are usually made directly on plate cylinders.
The main advantage of the intaglio printing method is the ability to create image halftones on the print due to the different thickness of the ink layer. Cells (printing elements) of the printing form, which transfer ink to the printed material, have a different volume depending on the tone created on the print. The richer the tone (color), the larger the volume of the cell.
The manufacture of a printing plate with recessed printing elements can be achieved chemically (acid etching) or mechanically (engraving with cutters and other tools).
Among the most commonchemicalways include etching (from the Frencheau - forte – Nitric acid ). This the method of making a printing plate (engraving) combines the methods of manual engraving with chemical etching. When etching, a copper or zinc plate with a thickness of 0.5 to 2.5 mm is covered with acid-resistant varnish or acid-resistant primer, which includes wax, rosin, asphalt. The lines of the pattern are scratched over the lacquer film (primer), exposing the surface of the metal. The plate is then acid-etched several times.
After the first etching, sufficient for a slight deepening of the strokes in the lightest places of the image, these places are covered with a protective varnish, excluding them from the etching processes in the future. Then the plate is subjected to the second etching, the areas of the next tone gradation are varnished. Thanks to this, strokes are obtained with different depths. Finally, the varnish is removed.
To the numbermechanicalmethods belongs to the incisor engraving. it the most ancient type of in-depth engraving on metal, which consists in manually cutting out strokes with the help of a special tool - a cutter (engraver). The material for the manufacture of the form is copper or steel plates with a thickness of 2.5 to 4 mm with rounded edges. A resin primer is applied to the smoothly polished surface of the plate, onto which the pattern is transferred, after which it is scratched with a needle so that it only slightly touches the metal surface. The contours of the image are engraved with a engraver. The deeper the cutter has entered, the thicker the colorful line on the print is.
The listed methods can be used to make printing plates when reproducing single-color and multi-color images on a print. Most often, etching is used to reproduce multi-color images.
AT modern printing The technological process of manufacturing printing plates for gravure printing is based on a combination of photochemical, electrochemical and mechanical processes. It consists of the following operations: 1) preparation of uniform material; 2) production of transparencies of individual elements of the photoform and their installation; 3) copying - transferring the montage to the form material; 4) etching the form and preparing it for printing.
Printing plates for gravure printing are made directly on the plate cylinder of the printing machine. Unlike other types of printing in gravure printing, transparencies are copied not directly onto plate material, but onto pigment paper, followed by transfer of the gelatin layer of pigment paper to the copper jacket of the plate cylinder. The largest depth of the printing elements in this case reaches 80 microns, and the minimum - 6 microns. This is the range of change in the thickness of the ink layer, which creates halftones on the print. This printing plate making process is known as the pigment plate making process. Recently, a non-pigmented method of transferring an image by direct laser engraving of the original image directly on the plate cylinder has been widely used.
Currently, for the production of printed products using the gravure printing method, only high-performance rotary multi-section web printing machines are used.
High productivity is an important advantage of gravure printing. High printing speeds are possible due to the continuity of the working surface of the printing plate (there are no seams and grooves) and the use of inks based on volatile solvents, which ensure their fast fixing.
However, in modern conditions gravure printing is used relatively rarely in the production of printed materials. This is due to the high cost of this method, which leads to the concentration of large production capacities, which in many cases makes it difficult to use them at a sufficiently efficient level, as well as the significant manual labor costs that exist here, especially at the final (control - proofreading) stage of manufacturing plate cylinders. In view of the considerable complexity and duration of production of plate cylinders and printing plates used in intaglio printing, the use of this method is beneficial only when printing large runs - from about 70 to 250 thousand copies.
impressions.
However, intaglio printing is widely used in the manufacture of mass magazine products with a large number of illustrations, albums with photo illustrations, postcards, and portraits.
Letterpress. This method has been used by printers for over a thousand years. The first printing forms were flat wooden boards with a flat and smooth surface, on which the image was obtained by cutting (deepening) non-printing blank elements. Letterpress was thus achieved by deepening those areas of the printing plate
which should not be inked. At the same time, the printing process was carried out
from elevated areas. This made it possible, when rolling elastic rollers with ink, to apply it selectively, only to the printing elements, and to transfer ink from them to the printed surface.
Due to the simplicity and speed of production of printing plates (especially for text reproduction), good product quality and high productivity, letterpress printing is widely used for printing newspapers, magazines, books and color illustrations. Characteristic features of prints obtained by letterpress are high definition of image elements, good contrast and the presence of a small relief on reverse side sheet.
Modern letterpress text forms are made on typesetting
and phototypesetting machines.
Letterpress printing plates can be primary and secondary. Primary, or original, letterpress plates are flat plates designed to be printed. Primary forms also include flexible forms, the relief image on which is obtained by etching gaps on a metal plate or by processing printing forms in a photopolymer layer deposited on a substrate. Secondary forms are otherwise called stereotypes. They are made from primary, original forms for the purpose of their reproduction and production of round forms for printing on a rotary printing machine.
Modern secondary letterpress plates are made from metal, plastic, or rubber. Printing from flat forms is carried out on crucible, so-called flatbed printing machines; from round shapes - on sheet or role rotary machines. Today, the method of offset printing has become widespread. Its essence lies in the fact that the image from the printing plate is first transferred to a rubber sheet (cylinder lined with rubber), and from it to paper. Modern rotary letterpress printing machines allow you to print illustrated multi-color newspapers, magazines, books on a continuous paper web up to 2 m wide at a speed of up to 15 m/s. Thus, the letterpress printing method is mainly used in high-volume presses.
Screen printing. This printing method was developed by Thomas Edison in 1875. It has found wide application in small and medium-sized printing devices. The principle of printing is to transfer an image using a printing plate, which is a grid (stencil), through the cells of the printing elements of which printing ink is pressed. The printed mesh form can be made of polymers, silk, copper. In gap areas, it is covered with a protective layer. Since the ink layer can reach a large thickness
(up to 80 microns and above), screen printing used for marking products, in the manufacture of printed circuit boards, printing books for the blind. There are several varieties of this method: classic screen printing and rotary (risographic) printing.
Short run printing systems
Short-run printing devices include various printers and copiers. Desktop printers are divided into matrix, inkjet and laser devices.
Matrix (needle) printers. Such printers are among the earliest automatic printing devices. The principle of printing dot-matrix printers is as follows: an electrical impulse is supplied to the element of the print head (the so-called needle) at the right time, which activates the electromagnet. There is a blow to the ink ribbon, and an imprint appears on the paper. The size of the needle print determines the graphic resolution of the dot matrix printer when printing. Important role at the same time, the number of needles of the print head plays: the more there are, the higher the quality and speed of printing.
Modern needle printers use a printhead
with 9 or 24 needles controlled by magnets. The speed of the latter and the number of printing needles mainly determine the speed of printing. Printing is carried out when the head (carriage) moves horizontally with its needles through an ink ribbon tucked into a special cassette (cartridge). The transition to the next line is achieved by a synchronized movement of the paper.
Modern printers typically have a print dot size of about 0.25 mm and a vertical (along the sheet) resolution of about 180 dots per inch (dpi). The performance of these printers when printing with the simplest fonts, especially 24-point fonts, is very high and reaches several tens of A4 sheets per minute. However, printing with more complex fonts reduces the speed of document output by several times (performance in the range of 25 - 500 characters per minute is provided).
Needle printers have the flexibility to output other fonts using appropriate drivers and different character matrix formats.
When printing in color on needle printers, a multi-color ribbon is used, on which several strips of different dyes are applied. To obtain shades, the image is rasterized. Raster ( German Raster - lattice) is used for structural transformation of a directed light beam. There are 1) transparent rasters, 2) in the form of alternating transparent and opaque elements, 3) reflective rasters with specularly reflective and absorbing (or scattering) elements.
Screening is used when reproducing halftone originals at the stage of copying or photographing in order to obtain a small-dot image. Despite the versatility of matrix technology, it is best used for printing text. Modern dot-matrix printers provide for working with A4 or A3 paper formats, have various ways of feeding paper, they print on the forward and reverse stroke of the carriage, and have a convenient user interface.
The cost of printing on dot matrix printers is low: low cost affects Supplies and maintenance. This is a big plus compared to other types of printers. home distinguishing feature matrix printers is that it is possible to print through carbon paper, unlike others, where it is necessary to print copies sequentially, which increases the cost of printing. Dot matrix printers are not demanding on paper quality.
Printers based on thermal printing technology, in terms of their design, they are very similar to dot-matrix printers (they use a print head equipped with a matrix of heating elements and special paper impregnated with a heat-sensitive dye). The thermal head matrix produced using thick-film technology can have a higher resolution (up to 200 dpi), however, the inertia and a number of other fundamental limitations of the printing process do not allow a significant increase in the print speed, usually 40 - 120 characters per minute. The disadvantages of such a printer include insufficient brightness, image contrast and the need to use special expensive paper. The advantages of thermal printers are a low noise level during operation, compactness, reliability, and the absence of refillable consumables. Thermal printing technology is not widely used today.
Inkjet printers. A higher class of printers form with inkjet printers. Fundamentally with Inkjet printers differ from dot matrix and thermal printers in the print head. The inkjet technology underlying this class of printers uses a method of "ejecting" ink droplets onto the paper. The print matrix of such a printer is a set of nozzles to which ink tanks and control mechanisms are connected. The disadvantage of inkjet printers is the high requirements for inks, and the image quality is highly dependent on the type of paper.
Modern mass-market inkjet printers typically have resolutions of 600 or 720 dpi, can print satisfactorily on plain paper and high quality on special paper. Recently, inkjet printers are approaching laser printers in terms of print quality and speed. The latest models of inkjet printers print 4 - 5 pages per minute, and some models - 10 - 12 pages per minute.
Laser printers. The highest quality and technically advanced are laser printers. They use the photosensitivity property of a number of materials that change their surface electrostatic charge when exposed to light. To implement this process, in addition to the paper feed mechanism, these printers contain a photosensitive drum, a mirror scanning system, focusing devices and a laser diode (or an LED array).
After charging and point-by-point illumination of the photosensitive drum, corresponding to the image being formed, a special coloring powder - toner - is supplied and fixed on it in accordance with the distribution of electric charge. Next, the paper rolls over the drum and removes the toner from it. The final fixing of the image on paper is achieved by heating it to the temperature of the melting of the toner.
The features of this process are characterized by the small size of the dot of the image matrix, which is reflected in the characteristics of the resolution of laser printers, which in practice is
300 - 1200 dpi. The high resolution of printers allows them to be used for printing a variety of text and graphic information, up to the production of polygraphic layouts and forms.
To ensure the printing of graphics, laser devices usually have a buffer memory of up to 1 MB.
These printers use plain and high-quality paper, print text and graphics at a speed of 4 to 20 (or more) A4 (A3) sheets per minute, i.e. output text information at speeds of the order of 160 - 2000 characters per minute and are almost silent at work.
Laser printers require skilled maintenance, and the cost of their products includes operating and depreciation costs. Laser printing is more expensive than other groups of printers, however, the prices of laser printers are constantly decreasing, and the costs are justified by the very high quality of products approaching
to the printing level.
The principle of operation of a photocopier is largely similar
with the principle of operation of a laser printer.
The role of a laser beam in a copier is played by a light flux reflected from a system of mirrors, carrying information about chiaroscuro to a special drum, which is otherwise called a “photoconductor” or “photoreceptor”. Under the influence of light, a latent image is formed on the drum, corresponding to the image of the copied original. At the same time, toner remains on the illuminated areas, and when the sheet passes the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper. The drums are covered with various materials, both inorganic (selenium, arsenium triselenide, etc.) and organic.
The drum is also called by the name of the coating, for example: “selenium” drum. Since when transferring toner to paper, ozone is released, which disrupts the normal composition of air, an important parameter is the amount of ozone released. The less ozone is emitted, the better the atmosphere in the office. Organic drums emit less ozone than non-organic drums and reproduce midtones better. In addition, their production is much cheaper. At the end of their service life, organic drums do not require special disposal, as they do not pollute the environment.
Review questions for the first topic
1. The main stages of the formation of printing equipment and technology.
2. Methods of modern printing.
3. Systems of large- and medium-circulation printing.
4. Systems of small-circulation printing.
5. The main stages of printing production.
Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY PHOTOS
Optics in photography
The expressive optical means of photography include: 1) various special lenses, the focal length of which is shorter or longer than the focal length of a normal lens, which provides the correct perspective, the usual perception of space, and 2) light -
and color filters.
Short throw lenses allow you to increase the angle of the image. In this case, the shorter the focal length of the lens, the larger the image angle. Using such lenses, the photographer has the ability to create the so-called spherical perspective. These are spectacular shots capturing vast spaces. Short-focus lenses are also used when shooting mass scenes, when it is necessary to convey a huge space with a glance. Such lenses have the ability to distort objects, exaggerate the perspective at various camera inclinations. These include unique lenses, called " fish eye”, giving coverage of space by 180 °.
Long lenses, on the contrary, reduce the image angle and have a shallow depth of field. They are used in the event that it is necessary to give a close-up of an object located at a great distance from the shooting point, to bring the background closer to the foreground. Thus, it is possible to achieve the feeling of a closed limited space.
With the help of wide-angle lenses, it is possible to hypertrophy the forms of captured objects, creating one of the photographic grotesque variants. Photographic lenses differ not only in the size of the angle, but also in the photographic pattern. Soft-focus optics soften sharp transitions from light to shadow, giving the image a more picturesque character. There are lenses that produce sharp, hard images in a graphic manner.
Optical expressive means include various light and color filters. There are filters with which you can get effects based on such physical phenomena as diffusion and diffraction. Diffractive filters create a light pattern, the nature of which will depend on the configuration of the lines applied to the glass. A diffraction circle on a filter can turn a light source in the frame into a solid, glowing spot or a fireball, while a diffraction ring creates a beautiful halo around the light source. If the pattern on the diffractive filter is in the form of a cross, then the rays coming from the light source form a cross in the photograph.
Several lines intersecting at one point will create a decorative beam beam effect in the photo frame. There may be several similar patterns on the filter, but in order to obtain the desired effect, it is necessary to visually combine the intersection point of the applied lines with the light source. Diffusion light filters can be gauze, tulle, nylon nets, glasses lubricated with a fatty substance. Such light filters, as if blurring the light, create the feeling of a light haze enveloping objects, or immersing objects in fog. It is possible to combine the phenomena of diffusion and diffraction on one light filter. So, for example, part of the surface of the light filter can be smeared with a fatty substance, which will cause light to diffuse and apply a pattern or sign on a clean area. Thus, part of the image in the photograph will be shrouded in fog, softening the sharp transitions of light and shadow, blurring
The term "printing" Greekpolis- a lot andgrapho- writing) literally means polywriting, i.e. reproduction in a large number of copies of the same text or figure. Printing is a branch of technology, which is a set of technical tools for the production of printed products. The main production processes in the printing industry: the manufacture of a printing plate, the actual printing and finishing of printed products.
The printing process begins with the production of a printing plate. In a simplified form, it is a plate, the surface of which is divided into printing (giving prints on paper) and space (non-printing) elements. Nowadays, there are several varieties of printing plates, the design of which is determined by the printing technology. Letterpress printing uses typesetting, clichés, and stereotypes. With a flat one - a form on a monometal (aluminum, zinc), bimetal and trimetal (steel, copper, chromium), on glass; for gravure printing - copper or chrome-plated cylinders.
For more than one millennium, people have been making seals - stamps (printing forms) that allow you to make prints of relief drawings on soft material (moistened clay, melted wax, etc.). So, for example, the seals of the ancient Indian civilization Mohenjo-Daro have come down to us. In ancient Babylon and Assyria, around the same time, seals were widely known - cylinders that were rolled over the surface of the printing plate. Interestingly, in ancient times, the principle of stamping was also used by man for minting coins.
Initially, each stamp was intended to extrude the whole picture along with the inscriptions. Then the idea came up to make separate stamps for each letter. The first discretely embossed inscription known to science was found on the Greek island of Crete at the turn of the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The same method was used in ancient Rome for stamping mottos on rings, and later in the Middle Ages in Europe for embossing inscriptions on the leather bindings of handwritten books.
Another component of printing technology - ink transfer - was also invented by man long ago. At first, a technology for applying a pattern to a fabric appeared: a pattern carved on a smoothly planed wooden plate was covered with paint, then pressed against a tightly stretched piece of cloth. The oldest example of printed fabric, made in the 4th century, was found in Egypt.
Texts were first printed in Korea (the oldest example was found in 751), then in China (757), and finally in Japan (764-770). For this, technology was used woodcuts (from Greek.xylon- a felled tree and grapho - I write, I draw). Its essence was that the original text, written in ink on paper, was rubbed against the carefully planed surface of the board. Around the strokes of the resulting mirror image, the engraver cut the wood. From the resulting form, it was possible to get up to 2000 prints in one day.
Typeset was also invented in China. The first printing attempts were made in 1041-1048 by the Chinese Bi Sheng. He used a typesetting mold with clay characters fixed in resin and wax on an iron plate. Litera ( from lat.lit(t) era- letter) - a rectangular bar with a relief (convex) image of a letter, number or any other sign. Over time, letters began to be made from wood, and then from metal, plastic.
In the future, the Chinese have achieved even greater success in the development of printing technology. For example, Wang Zheng's Nong Shu, first published in 1314, contained a chapter entitled "Moving Type Typography." It proposed the principles of printing technology, which did not find application in China, but were used in Europe until the middle of the 20th century. The main reason for the lack of demand for advanced technologies and discoveries, according to researchers, was the complex and inconvenient for printing hieroglyphic writing of the Chinese. The alphabet in this regard was much better, and that is why the developments of the Chinese were used by other peoples who had an alphabetic letter. The Koreans were the first to widely use printing in metal letters already in the 13th century. After the transition to a new alphabet in 1420, the printing process was noticeably simplified.
The revolution in printing production was made by the German engineer-inventor Johannes Gutenberg (1399-1468), who proposed a new, high-performance printing technology. Firstly, he invented a word-casting form, the essence of which was that the engraver made a metal bar, on the end of which there was a mirror image of the letter. Such a bar was called a "punch". A matrix was squeezed out by a punch in a plate of relatively soft metal (for example, copper), and any necessary number of letters was cast from the dies inserted into the type-casting mold. The first fonts included a very large set of different letters. For example, in the Bible published by Gutenberg, the font contained 290 characters. Such a number of characters was needed to represent the handwritten look of the book.
To get an impression from a printing form, it was necessary to first cover it with paint (the first stage). Then a sheet of paper was superimposed on the set (second stage). This sheet had to be pressed firmly and evenly, and then the finished impression was removed from the set (third stage). The manual printing press, invented by Gutenberg, mechanized only the third, but very important stage, since it made it possible to create a large pressure - about 8 kg / cm 2. For example, a 4.5 ton force had to be applied to a 8.2 x 19 cm sheet of the Bible! A mechanized printing press made it possible to create such pressure by turning a pressure screw using a lever.
In addition, Guttenberg made sure that the pressure plate could not only be mechanically lowered, but also raised. At the same time, the form was easily pulled out from under the press for applying paint and accurately laying the paper on the form. The design of the Gutenberg machine was so successful that it remained without fundamental structural changes for about 350 years.
Along with the printing of alphabetic texts, printing engineers worked on the reproduction of images. For example, the first typographic display of an ornament in a book printed from a set was achieved by the German printer P. Schöffer in 1457 on the pages of the Mainz Psalter, and in 1461 in Bamberg A. Pfister published books with wood-engraved illustrations.
Western European printing art came to Russia shortly after Gutenberg's invention. However, Russian works appeared much later. Thus, printing in Moscow began in the 50s of the 16th century. The first printing house appeared in the house of the priest Sylvester.
In 1563, the first state printing house began its work in Russia. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets worked here. They worked on the first Russian printed book "The Apostle" from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564. A feature of Russian fonts was the use of superscripts separate from the main letters. This made it possible to imitate the appearance of a handwritten book. In Russia at that time, they did not yet make a printing alloy from lead, antimony and tin, so tin was used for casting fonts, which, however, could not withstand large print runs.
It should be noted that along with the development of the actual printing technology, the so-called "typometry" - a typographic system of measures proposed by the Frenchman P.S. Fournier in 1737 and subsequently improved by F. Didot. Typometry is a system for measuring elements of type and typesetting, which is based on the French inch. Basic units of typometry: a point equal to 1/72 of an inch (0.376 mm) and a square equal to 48 points (18.04 mm).
However, the real progress in the field of printing technologies occurred only when there was a market demand for mass-produced printed products. This happened in the middle of the 18th century. Life led to the need for the rapid release of newspapers and magazines in large circulations, and the Gutenberg printing press could no longer cope with these tasks.
The intensification of the printing process became possible only with the advent of the printing press, invented by the German Friedrich König. Initially, in his design, known as the "Sulsky press", the first stage was mechanized - the process of applying paint to the printing plate, but sheets of paper were still superimposed and removed manually, and the machine was driven by the power of the printer himself. At the beginning of the 19th century, König took another step towards the creation of a high-speed printing press, in which the flat pressure plate was replaced by a rotating cylinder.
An important date in the history of the development of printing and, especially, newspaper business was the date of November 29, 1814, when for the first time the entire circulation of the London newspaper "Times" was printed on a Koenig machine driven by a steam engine. The labor productivity of this machine turned out to be 10 times higher than that of the previous devices.
Koenig machines also worked in Russia (392 of the first 2000 produced by 1873), but the very first Koenig printing press in Russia was made back in 1829 at the Aleksandrovskaya manufactory for the St. Petersburg newspaper Severnaya Pchela.
The development of technological progress has led to various upgrades of the printing press. Printing engineers noticed that in flatbed printing machines the printing plate made reciprocating motions. This complicated the mechanism, in addition, the reverse stroke was useless. Therefore, the idea arose to use a rotational (based on rotation) principle. For printing purposes, this principle was first used in 1848 by Augustus Applegate. The first rotary press installed at the Times printing house ran at a speed of 10,000 prints per hour. In Russia, the first German-made rotary machine appeared in 1878.
Simultaneously with the improvement of printing machines, patents for the invention of typesetting machines appear, the first of which was issued to the Englishman W. Church in 1822. In 1867, the Russian inventor P.P. Knyagininsky created the first automatic typesetting machine. In 1884, O. Mergenthaler (USA) patented a machine - the linotype ( from lat.linea- line and Greek.typos- imprint). Linotype is a type-setting line-casting machine that produces a set in the form of monolithic metal lines with a relief printing surface. At the end of the 19th century, the widespread introduction of typesetting and stitching-binding machines into the production began.
The idea of photographic typesetting was put forward in 1894 by the Hungarian E. Porzelt, and the first phototypesetting machine appeared in 1895 (inventor V.A. Gassiev). Photosetting is the process of making photoforms (negatives, positives) of prints for the subsequent production of prints.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, gravure and offset printing machines were developed. In the 20th century, there was a transition from machines that mechanize individual production operations to automated production lines. At the beginning of the twentieth century, printing machines switched to an electric drive. In the 30s - 40s of the twentieth century, electrical control and blocking and measuring devices appeared. In the 1950s and 1960s, the introduction of electronics made it possible to significantly reduce the time and labor costs for the production of printed materials.
Along with the development of in-line printing technologies, the development of individual instruments for hand writing also took place. So, in the late 1930s, the Hungarians Laszlo and Biro invented ball pen, which has now practically replaced the pen one. The metal ball at the end of the tube with the paste made it possible to write without blots and blots.