Psychophysiological structure of the processes of reading letters. Research problem. The psychological structure of the processes of writing and reading

Dysgraphia - it's partial specific disorder writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.

Writing Process Operations

Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When mastering the letter, these operations are presented in expanded form.

A. R. Luria in his work “Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing” defines the following writing operations.

The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc. A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts. The initial thought corresponds to a certain sentence structure. In the process of writing, the writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase, focus on what he has already written and what he has to write.

Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. Sound analysis of the word is carried out joint activities speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word.

The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.

The following terms are mainly used to refer to violations of the letter: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia.

The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.

In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention , successive and simulative processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

The psycholinguistic aspect of the study of dysgraphia is not sufficiently represented in speech therapy literature. This aspect considers the mechanisms of writing disorders as a disorder of the operations of generating a written speech statement (according to A. A. Leontiev): internal programming of a coherent text, internal programming of a separate sentence, grammatical structuring, phoneme selection operations, phonemic analysis of words, etc. (E. M. Gopichenko, E. F. Sobotovich).

Dysgraphia classification

Dysgraphia classification is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.

Optical dysgraphia due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations. different levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M.E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders("graphic tongue-tied"). According to M. E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E. Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the “experienced” tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of literacy or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but the visual image of the word is hardly formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: P- to, p. - and, with- oh and- w, l- m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence, and is determined by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the unformedness of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia in many ways similar to the dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev on the basis of oral speech disorders.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. AT this case it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

Definition of "writing". Psychophysiological mechanisms of writing. Writing operations. Types of writing and its basic skills. The value of the works of A.R. Luria in the study of the mechanisms of writing. Differences between writing and writing. Written speech is the most complex form of speech activity.

Writing is a complex form of speech activity, which is a multi-level process. It involves various parsers; speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close relationship and interdependence is established. The structure of this process depends on the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development.

Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When mastering the letter, these operations are presented in expanded form.

One of the most difficult operations of writing is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To write a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds is played by playback: loud whispering or internal. Playing helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially similar graphically, which requires a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out, which is reinforced by visual control, reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by the collapse (underdevelopment) of the HMF, which carry out the writing process normally.

The following terms are used to denote writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysography, evolutionary dysgraphia.

In children with dysgraphia, many HMFs are not formed: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, luso-pronunciation differentiation of speech, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simulative processes , emotional-volitional sphere.

The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is the transfer of meaning or its fixation. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual. Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When writing is mastered, these operations appear in expanded form.

A. R. Luria in the work "Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing" defines the following operations of the writing process.

Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the 1st grade. In the first series, they were offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which; must be differentiated from all others, especially similar graphically. To accurately distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formed visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of letters with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient residual level of formation of certain speech non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.

The following terms are mainly used to denote writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia (to denote a violation of the process of mastering reading in children). The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.

In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexicogrammatic structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simultaneous processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

The psycholinguistic aspect of the study of dysgraphia is not sufficiently represented in speech therapy literature. This aspect considers the mechanisms of writing disorders as a disorder of the operations of generating a written speech statement (according to A. A. Leontiev): internal programming of a connected test, internal programming of a separate sentence, grammatical structuring, phoneme selection operations, phonemic analysis of words, etc. (E. M. Gopichenko, E. F. Sobotovich).

Voevodina Lyudmila Alexandrovna

teacher speech therapist

GBOU secondary school №1435 SZUO

“Psychological structure of writing formation. Some trickssolid development of writing skills»

I Explanatory note

II Theoretical part

The history of the development of writing.

1. The psychological level of writing.

2. Psychophysiological level of writing.

3. Linguistic level.

4. Brain basis of writing.

Lack of writing skills in children.

III Practical part

Some methods of solid development of writing skills.

Literature.

Explanatory note

Writing is a complex mental process, which in any psychological classifications is usually included in speech , which has different types and forms. Written language is one of species speech, along with oral and internal, and includes writing and reading.

The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual. If it were possible to fully establish the techniques that are used by the writer at each stage of mastering the skill, then it would be possible to establish with all obviousness how the process of writing is reduced in terms of its psychophysiological content in a person who has a developed, automated writing skill.

However, due to the fact that writing is a complex mental activity, the individual links of which are often not clearly understood, it is very difficult to analyze the psychological composition of the writing process. Even very experienced observers cannot say with certainty what role visual or motor images play in their writing, what function the speaking aloud or in a whisper of the written text has, and what significance the subtle sound analysis of the material to be recorded has. That is why a careful study of the psychological content of the processes of writing, using a variety of ways, is very important. It will help to better understand what exactly presents certain difficulties for the student in the process of writing, and to develop techniques by which these difficulties can be overcome.

Theoretical part

History of the development of writingshows that written speech is actually "artificial human memory" and it arose from primitive mnemonic signs.

At some point in the history of mankind, people began to record information, their thoughts in some permanent way. The methods changed, but the goal - communication, communication, memorization - remained unchanged. But if the beginning of mankind is considered with the use of fire, then the boundary separating the lower and higher forms of human existence must be considered the emergence of written speech. Tying a knot for memory was one of the most primary forms written speech. The beginning of the development of writing rests on auxiliary means. Yes, inIn ancient Peru, conditional records, the so-called "quipu", were widely developed for keeping annals, for preserving information from the life of the state, etc.

At first, people came up with symbols - notches on a tree, drawings, i.e. pictograms , through simplification and then generalization turned into ideograms , which are actually the beginning of the letter. It was first created by the Assyrians. This way of writing clearly symbolized the idea. Later, ideograms turn into a combination of letter signs, i.e. into syllabic (syllabic) script created in Egypt. And only after this long history of development, the recording of thoughts, ideas, information appears alphabetical (from the Greek letters α and β) a letter in which one letter represents one sound; this letter was created by the Greeks.

So, we see that the development of writing went in the directionremoval from figurativeness and approach to speech . At first, writing historically developed independently of oral speech, and only later did it becomemediate by speech.

Modern written speech is alphabetic in nature, that is, the sounds of oral speech are indicated by certain letters; True, such a ratio (sound-letter) does not take place in all modern languages. For example, in English language or in Greek and Turkish, the oral modality of speech is quite different from the written one. This fact already speaks of the complex relationship between writing and oral speech: they are closely related, but their unity also includes significant differences. A. R. Luria, B. G. Ananiev, E. S. Bein, R. E. Levina, O. P. Kaufman and others also point to the connection between writing and speech.

Back in the 19th century some classics of neurology considered writing as an opto-motor act, and its disorders as a loss of opto-motor acts, i.e., as a violation of the connections between the center of vision, the motor center of the hand and the centers of word formation. Such an understanding of writing led him far away from speech.

Comparative analysis of oral and written speech.

Modern psychology considers writing as a complex conscious form of speech activityhaving both common and distinctive characteristics. Studies have shown that the processes of writing and oral speech differ in many ways: in origin, method of formation, method of flow, psychological content, functions. So, oral speech arises in the 2nd year of life, and writing is formed in the 5-7th year; oral speech arises directly in the process of communication with an adult, and written speech is formed consciously, in the process of conscious learning.

From the very beginning, the ways of the emergence and development of writing act as conscious actions, and only gradually does writing become automated and turn into a smoothly flowing skill. In this it differs from oral speech, which is formed involuntarily and proceeds automatically.

In the early stages of mastering writing, each individual operation is an isolated, conscious action. Writing a word breaks up for a child into a number of tasks: highlight the sound, designate it with the corresponding letter, remember it, write. As the skill of writing develops, its psychological structure changes. Separate operations fall out of the control of consciousness, are automated, combined and turn into a motor skill, which further provides a complex mental activity - written speech.

The clearest differences between oral and written speech are found in the psychological content of these processes. S. L. Rubinshtein, comparing these two types of speech, wrote that oral speech, first of all situational . Situation is realized, firstly, in colloquial speech in the presence of general situation , which creates a context within which the transmission and reception of information is simplified. Secondly, oral speech has a number of emotional and expressive means that help communication, more accurate and economical transmission and reception of information; superfixes - gestures, facial expressions, pausing - also create situational speech. Thirdly, in oral speech there are a number of non-formalizable means that depend on the motivational sphere and directly or indirectly represent a manifestation of activity - general and verbal. Written speech is a special speech process, it is a speech-monologue, conscious and arbitrary.

L. S. Vygotsky wrote that written speech, having a close relationship with oral speech, nevertheless, in the most essential features of its development, does not at all repeat the history of the development of oral speech. “Written speech is also not a simple translation of oral speech into written signs, and mastering written speech is not just mastering the technique of writing” (Vygotsky L. S. Thinking and speech. - M., 1956. - P. 263)

Written speech requires abstraction for its development. In comparison with oral speech, it is doubly abstract: firstly, the child must abstract from sensual, sounding and spoken speech, and secondly, he must move on to abstract speech, which usesnot words, but representations of words. That written languagethought, not spokenrepresents one of the main distinctive features these two types of speech and a significant difficulty in the formation of written speech.

The motives of written speech also arise later, and they themselves are more abstract and intellectualistic. It is very difficult to create motives for writing in a child, since he manages very well without writing.

Written speech has a number of psychological features:

1. She is more arbitrary oral. Already the sound form, which is automated in oral speech, requires dismemberment, analysis and synthesis when teaching writing. Syntax phrases are as arbitrary as phonetics.

2. It's conscious activities and is closely related with intention . Signs and their use are assimilated by the child consciously and intentionally, in contrast to the unconscious use and assimilation of oral speech.

Written speech is “the algebra of speech, the most difficult and complex form of intentional and conscious speech activity” (Vygotsky L. S. Thinking and speech. - M., 1956. - P. 267)

So, of paramount importance for mastering written speech isawareness of one's own speech and mastery of it. And finally, there are differences in the functions of written and oral speech (if we talk about functions in a generalized form).

1. Oral speech usually performs the function of colloquial speech in a conversation situation, and written speech - business speech, scientific, etc., and it serves the absent interlocutor to convey content.

2. Compared with oral speech, writing as a means of communication is not independent, but only auxiliary to oral speech.

3. The functions of written speech, although very broad, are nevertheless narrower than the functions of oral speech. The functions of written speech are, first of all, ensuring the transmission of information over any distance, providing the possibility of fixing speech and information in time. They endlessly push the limits of the development of human society.

This characteristic of writing makes it possible to consider oral and written speech as two levels within the linguistic and psychological hierarchy. X. Jackson, an English neurologist of the 19th century, considered writing and understanding written as the manipulation of "symbols of symbols." The use of oral speech, according to L. S. Vygotsky, requires primary symbols, and writing requires secondary ones. Therefore, it can be assumed that writing will be violated more often and more rudely, since this is a later and more complex function.

Let us briefly summarize the comparative analysis written and oral speech. Written speech:

Conscious and arbitrary process;

Its unit is the monologue;

It is contextual, unlike situational speech. Contextual speech itself generates, activates, controls, using the method of enumeration;

It does not have additional means that would make it more economical with the same degree of accuracy, so it uses a strategy of enumeration of means (lexical, syntactic, phonetic);

She is redundant;

For its development requires abstraction; it is thought, not spoken;

Written speech - "algebra of speech";

The motives are intellectualistic.

Analysis of the psychological structure of written speech.

The psychological structure of writing is very complex. The first and main component of the writing process isword sound analysis, which involves the ability to isolate individual sounds from a sounding word and turn them into stable phonemes. The second component of the writing process isthe operation of correlating each sound extracted from a word with its corresponding letter.Finally, the third link isrecoding the visual representation of a letter into adequate graphic stylescarried out by a series of successivemovement. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely related to the process of oral speech and is carried outonly on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development.

The psychological structure of writing would be incomplete if we did not point out the psychophysiological content of the main links we have identified.

It is known that the psychophysiological basis of speech and speech processes is the joint work of auditory and speech-motor analyzers. That is why a full-fledged analysis of the sounding word requires the participation of kinesthetic mechanisms. In addition, the analysis of a word, in addition to the selection and refinement of sounds based on acoustic and kinesthetic afferentations, also involves the operation of establishing a sequential order of sounds in a word. And this is not enough. It is also necessary to keep the selected sounds in short-term memory. Only after that, the sound extracted from the word and refined can be recoded into a letter. The process of visual perception and perception of space and spatial relations takes part in this link.

I. Psychological levelincludes a number of links:

1. The emergence of intention, motive for writing, tasks. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc.

2. Creating a plan (about what write?). A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts.

3. Creation based on itcommon sense (thatwrite?) the content of written speech.

4. Regulation of activities and control over the actions performed.

Psychology knows well that the process of writing is all the same whether it is a letter from dictation, a free written presentation, or evencopying from a text is far from being a simple psychological act.

However different the psychological mechanisms of the processes of writing in each of the cases just mentioned, each process of writing includes many common elements in its composition.

A letter always begins with a well-known problem that either arises from the writer or is proposed to him. If a student has to write a dictated word or phrase, this idea boils down to ensuring that, after listening to the text, write it with all accuracy and correctness. If a student has to write a free presentation or a letter, the idea is first limited to a certain thought, which is later formed into a phrase, those words that should be written first are already selected from the phrase. At the beginning of the development of a skill, the idea most often comes down to writing this or that word or a short phrase, and only behind this immediate task does a more general idea vaguely emerge - the recording of a whole phrase or thought. At the later stages of skill development, this task is reduced to a written presentation of the content, to the formulation of a whole thought; intermediate operations, as was said, can proceed unconsciously and only in some cases are shifted to the analysis of the words to be written or the grammatical structure of the recorded phrase.

Under all conditions, the main task - the thought to be formulated or the phrase to be recorded - must be remembered, it must be separated from all other extraneous factors. The writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase; should always be focused on where he is, what has already been written by him and what remains to be written. Without this, each break in the letter would destroy the desired sequence and each pause would lead to the destruction of the plan. The idea would be invaded by random moments anticipated by the writer, or the student would suddenly begin to write down elements that had moved from the end of a word or phrase, or he would repeat several times a word, syllable or letter already written by him. This really happens in a state of absent-mindedness, when the ability to clearly formulate a thought and follow the desired sequence of words disappears.

All this suggests that the idea, which is to be turned into a detailed phrase, must not only be retained, but with the help of inner speech, in the future, it must be turned into a detailed structure of the phrase, the parts of which must retain their order. This also means that the preservation of the planned scheme of that phrase or that word that should be written down must necessarily slow down all extraneous tendencies - both running ahead and prematurely writing this or that word or sound, and repeating an already written word or sound, its " perseveration".

II. Psychophysiological(or sensorimotor) level (i.e. the process itself letters) is ensured by the joint work of a number of analyzers of acoustic, optical, kinesthetic, kinetic,proprioceptive, spatial and other analyzer systems. Consists of two sublevels - senso-acoustic-motor and opto-motor.

A.) The sensory-acoustic-motor sublevel consists of links, the implementation of which allows you to answer the question, how to write :

1. Provides processsound discrimination(i.e., analysis of the sound composition of the word). It creates the basis for the operations of acoustic and kinesthetic analysis of sounds, words, for the ability to distinguish stable phonemes and articles.

2. Ensures the establishment of a sequence in writing letters in a word(ladle, admirer, colonel etc.).

3. All this is possible if the auditory-speech memory is preserved.

The first of the special operations that make up the writing process itself isanalysis of the sound composition of that wordto be written. From the sound stream perceived and mentally represented by a person writing to dictation, a series of sounds should be distinguished, first those with which right word, and then subsequent ones. This task is by no means always simple; many Soviet methodologists, and especially I. K. Shaposhnikov, paid attention to it.

Only in such words, which consist of a number of open syllables, pronounced quite separately (as, for example: "Ma-sha" or "do-ro-ga"), the sequential isolation of sounds proceeds relatively easily. In words that include closed syllables, and even more so in words that include a consonant cluster, a series of unstressed vowels, this is an emphasis desired sequence sounds becomes more of a challenge. It becomes even more complicated in those cases when the child tries to repeat the desired word several times in a row, not dividing it into separate syllables, but grasping it as a whole, “globally”. Then - as often happens - unstressed vowels can be dropped, a strong-sounding syllable is moved to the beginning, and weak-sounding syllables are skipped altogether. Sometimes the syllables are rearranged, and in the child's writing, those defects naturally arise that manifested themselves in oral speech at the first stages of its development and which, in psychology, are known as anticipations (anticipations), for example: "onko" or "kono" instead of "window"; Elysium (omissions, omissions), for example: “poppy” instead of “carrot”, “moko” instead of “milk”; perseverations (jamming, repetition of individual sounds); contamination (alloys of two complex syllables into one, which includes elements of each of these syllables) and permutations.

Selecting a sequence of soundsconstituting a word, is the first condition for dismembering the speech stream, in other words, for turning it into a series of articulate sounds.

The second condition, closely related to the previous one, isrefinement of sounds, turning audible into this moment sound optionsinto clear, generalized speech sounds- into phonemes. A “phoneme” is a stable sound of speech, the change of which changes the meaning of the word (for example, d as opposed to t in the words: "daughter" and "point". A “sound variant” is that change in sound that depends on the surrounding conditions (for example, the intensity of the sound impulse, the duration of the sound, sometimes the timbre) and does not introduce a semantic change into the word. Thus, the main components of sound speech are phonemes).

This task is far from being as simple as one might think.

Only in cases where the word consists of distinctly and unambiguously sounding elements (as is the case, for example, in the words "Ma-sha" or "sha-ry"), the establishment of sounds occurs without difficulty. Much more difficult are those cases when the consonant enters either a soft or a hard syllable, and when, for example, in completely different-sounding variants of the consonant t in the syllables “that”, “ta”, “those”, “ti”, it is necessary, distracting from these audible options, to perceive the same phoneme t . Difficulties close to this also arise in cases where a change in only one feature (for example, sonority) turns one sound into a completely different one (for example, d in t , s in s ) and when, therefore, the child must distinguish the desired phoneme, separating it from a similar one in sound.

The child masters all this, however, easily, and only sometimes such mistakes as "chicks" instead of "chickens" speak of the residual difficulties encountered in this task.

Much greater difficulties are associated with the task of differentiating consonant clusters and distinguishing between individual elements that make up complex sound complexes. This task requires special work, and a student who has studied for several months often continues with only great difficulty to isolate individual sounds from such combinations as ref (from "manage") lnts (from the "sun"), etc. In any case, this work on sound analysis and refinement of sounds is the second essential condition for the writing process, because only these phonemes, abstracted from random sounds and isolated from the general complex of sounds that make up the word, can become the subject of further recording.

The sound analysis of a word, the isolation of individual sounds and the transformation of sound variants into clear phonemes are the first necessary link for the implementation of a complex writing process.

At the initial stages of the development of the writing skill, these processes proceed completely consciously, at later stages they almost cease to be conscious and are carried out automatically.

The analysis of the sound structure of a word is one of the most difficult operations of the writing process. To write a word correctly, define it sound structure, sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. Many studies testify to the role of pronunciation in the process of writing. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

B.) At the opto-motor sublevel, complex processes of recoding (recoding) from one code to another take place:

1. From sound to letter(provided by the joint work of acoustic, kinesthetic and optical analyzers) - the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required.

Each phoneme must be translated into the corresponding letter, which must be written in the future. If the preliminary sound analysis was carried out clearly enough, then the recoding of speech sounds into letters (or, as linguists say, phonemes into graphemes) does not cause any particular difficulties. Teaching writing shows that this part of the skill is learned well, but sometimes the teacher has to devote special work to it. Only the mixing of inscriptions of rarely occurring letters and another defect, known in the literature under the name of "mirror writing", indicate that keeping the desired grapheme in memory is not always easy and that psychology must always take into account possible difficulties both in remembering the desired letter and in its graphic design.

Experienced teachers know that first grade children often mix up written E with Z, or b with d, write w as t or and as p, finding it difficult to distinguish between these letters, similar in form and differing only in a different spatial arrangement of elements. Sometimes, in some children (most often left-handers), such difficulties take on more severe forms: the child cannot immediately select the side from which to start writing, confusing writing from left to right with writing in the opposite direction and sometimes writing down entire syllables in a mirror.

As a rule, these difficulties are easily overcome and do not constitute significant obstacles in teaching literacy. Difficulties in maintaining the desired order of letters and omissions of letters, which are much more common in children who begin to learn to write, are not due to difficulties in maintaining the desired outline of the letters, but due to the difficulty in maintaining the sound sequence of word elements to be recorded.

2. Letter (optical sign)on a complex of fine hand movements, i.e., into a motor objective action corresponding to the writing of each individual letter, a visual image (writing a letter requires joint work optical, spatial and motor analyzers that provide fine hand movements, etc.). Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. Research conducted by E. V. Guryanov makes it possible to see that this last stage, which is part of the writing process, does not remain unchanged and that it is precisely this stage that clearly reflects the unequal structure that characterizes writing at various stages of language acquisition.

If, as we saw above, at the first stages of skill development, the movement necessary to write each letter (and even earlier, each element of the letter) is the subject of a specially conscious action, then later these individual elements are combined, and a person who is fluent in writing, begins to write down whole complexes of familiar sounds with a combined sign. The smoothness that characterizes all developed writing, and behind which it is easy to see the unification of individual habitual sound combinations, convincingly shows that the process of developed writing has acquired a complex automated character and that the writing of entire sound complexes has gradually become an automated auxiliary operation.

The relationship between sound and letter, between phoneme and grapheme is complex. This entire series of recodings is also extremely complex and involves the translation of one and the same sound into a number of different forms of its manifestation - into motor, optical.

The transcoding of sound into a letter when writing and letters into sound when reading are perhaps the most difficult in these processes. Translation from one level to another is possible only thanks to the interacting work of a number of analyzer systems and the highest level of speech organization. To implement writing, one needs: generalized representations of the sounds of a given language system and, at the same time, stable connections of sounds and letters denoting these sounds. Just as in oral speech generalized and stable phonemes are needed, so in writing generalized and stable graphemes are needed, denoting corresponding and always constant phonemes.

All of the foregoing asserts that the process of writing is least of all that simple "ideo-motor" act, as it has often been tried to represent, and that it includes many mental processes that lie both outside the visual sphere (associated with the representation of letters) and outside the motor sphere, which plays a role in the direct implementation of the writing process.

III. Linguistic levelorganization of the letter explains what means of writing.

This level provides writing with linguistic, linguistic means of implementing the process, i.e., it implements the translation of the internal meaning, which is formed at the psychological level, into linguistic codes - into lexico-morphological and syntactic units, i.e. into words and phrases.

The brain behind writing.

The process of writing is so complex, it includes so many different components, that from the very beginning it makes one assume that it is impossible to “localize” it in a strictly limited area of the cerebral cortex, therefore, it requires the joint work of not one, but a number of areas of the brain. This statement became possible due to the success of neurology and neurosurgery in the study of writing in patients with lesions of limited areas of the cerebral cortex.

Modern science of the brain and its activity has established that each area of the brain has its own special structure and its work is associated with special functions.(A. R. Luria, The brain and mental processes. Journal. "Soviet Pedagogy", 1947, No. 9) Left hemisphere the brain of each person is leading; the devices embedded in it are connected with the right hand, ensure the normal flow of speech and thought processes. The right hemisphere is subordinate and is not directly related to the regulation of speech. For left-handed people, the situation is different, for them, on the contrary, the right hemisphere is leading, and the left is subordinate.

Different parts of the cerebral cortex also have different functions. The occipital region of the brain is, as anatomical and clinical studies have shown, the central apparatus of vision; in some parts of this area, the fibers that carry visual stimuli end, so they are, as it were, the central receiving station of vision. Other areas process these visual impressions and, according to I. P. Pavlov, are the apparatus of visual analysis and synthesis.

The temporal region of the left hemisphere is the same central apparatus for auditory sensation and auditory analysis.

The parietal region is a cortical apparatus that analyzes the sensations coming from the surface of the skin and muscles (and, therefore, allows you to assess the position of the body), is of great importance for ensuring fine and precise movements, since such movements can only be found when they go under the control of signals constantly coming from the periphery about the position of the body's organs in space.

Finally, the anterior sections of the cerebral cortex are associated with the organization of the flow of movements over time, with the development and preservation of motor skills, and with the organization of complex purposeful actions.

The joint work of all these areas of the cerebral cortex is necessary for the normal implementation of each complex psychological process, including speech, writing and reading.

The psychological level is realizeddue to the work of the frontal parts of the brain - the anterior-posterior and medial-basal parts of the frontal region of the cerebral cortex.

The psychophysiological level is providedjoint work of the posterior frontal, inferior parietal, temporal, posterior temporal, anterior occipital regions (tpo zone).

Linguistic level, on which language means are selected (necessary sounds, words, syntax), depends from the joint work of the front and back speech zones, providing syntagmatics and paradigmatics of speech.

The joint work of all these morphological formations of the brain is the brain basis of the writing process.

So the functional system that ensures the normal process of writing includes various parts of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain and various analyzer systems (acoustic, optical, motor, etc.), and each of them ensures the normal flow of only one of any link in the structure of writing, and all together - normal conditions for the implementation of a complex holistic process of writing.

In this way , writing cannot be attributed either only to speech, or to the processes of visual perception and motor skills. Writing is a complex mental process that includes in its structure both verbal and non-verbal forms of mental activity - attention, visual, acoustic and spatial perception, fine motor skills of the hand, object actions, etc. Therefore, its disorder is systemic in nature, i.e. writing is violated as an integral system, an integral mental process.

Lack of writing skills in children(or the difficulty of its formation in primary school) is also of a systemic nature, however, if in adult patients the systemic violation of writing, as a rule, is based on defects in one of any mental processes, almost always elementary (with the exception of complex forms of agraphia); then in children the mechanisms of disturbance are most often complex and may lie in the sphere not only of elementary mental processes (motor skills, graphomotor coordination, disturbances in sound analysis and synthesis, etc.), but also in the sphere of higher mental functions - in violation of general behavior, lack of formation personality, attention, abstract forms of thinking, etc. “... By the beginning of teaching written speech,” writes L. S. Vygotsky, “all the main mental functions underlying it had not finished and had not even begun the real process of their development; learning is based on immature mental processes that are just beginning the first and main cycles of development ... immaturity of functions by the beginning of learning - general and basic law ... "(Vygotsky L.S. Collected works - M., 1982. -V.2. - P. 211). Nevertheless, agraphia in children is often considered as only a speech disorder, and methodological developments due to this misconception are often only verbal in nature.

Written language plays a significant role in the development of HMF. The child is learning at school, in particular thanks to the written language and grammar,awareness of one's actions, arbitrary operation of one's own actions and skills,for writing takes the child from the plane of unconscious actions to actions that are voluntary, intentional, and conscious.

Prerequisites for the formation of writing skills.

Some studies in recent years have shown a close connection between the difficulties of writing writing in junior schoolchildren not so much with the underdevelopment of speech, but with the lack of formation of non-verbal forms of mental processes - visual-spatial representations, auditory-motor and opto-motor coordination, general motor skills, with the lack of formation of the process of attention, as well as the purposefulness of activity, self-regulation, control over actions; by this time, the motives of the child's behavior are not sufficiently formed. In psychology letter formationsome psychologicalprerequisites for the formation of this type of speech, the violation (or lack of formation) of which leads to various forms of agraphia in both children and adults with local brain lesions:

1. Writing requires, first of all, the formation (or preservation) of oral speech, arbitrary possession of it, i.e., analysis and synthesis of oral speech.

2. The second prerequisite is the formation (or preservation) of spatial perception and representations:

a) visuospatial

b) somato-spatial, sensations of one's body in space,

c) the formation of the concepts of "right" and "left" in space.

3. A necessary condition is the formation (or preservation) of the motor sphere various kinds praxis (posture, dynamic, spatial, constructive); formation of opto-motor and auditory-motor coordination.

4. Next necessary condition is the formation in children of abstractions, abstract modes of activity, which is possible with the gradual transfer of children from concrete, objective modes of action to abstract ones.

5. And finally, no less important is the formation (or preservation) of general behavior, personality, emotional-volitional sphere; formation of cognitive and educational motives activities, self-regulation and control of their own activities.

In the early stages of mastering writing, each individual operation is an isolated, conscious action. Writing a word breaks down for a child into a number of tasks:

1) highlight the sound,

2) designate it with the corresponding letter,

3) remember it,

4) draw,

5) check the correctness.

As writing develops, the psychological and psychophysiological structure of the skill changes, individual operations fall out of the control of consciousness, are automated, combined and turn into a complex activity - writing.

Writing exists in different forms- auditory (dictation) and copying, independent active written presentations and compositions. In the last two forms, writing appears not so much as a sensorimotor act, but as a complex speech activity, i.e., as written speech that proceeds at a higher level and requires the participation of more complex areas of the cerebral cortex.

The letter can be dividedaccording to the degree of automation of the flow of one or another of its forms: its automated forms, flowing with the least control on the part of consciousness, are ideogram writing. Copying, dictation, and even more so, writing and composition always proceed under the control of consciousness.

Necessary and general requirements to the formation and restoration of letters are:

1. Reliance on the maximum number of parsers used in writing (or safe parsers).

2. Reliance on the semantic semantics of writing and speech (or preserved).

3. The use of mainly conscious forms of activity occurring at an arbitrary level of organization of the writing process (especially in restorative learning).

4. In some cases, on the contrary, an involuntary level of writing realization, its automation and its forms such as ideogram motor writing (handwriting in the air) are included.

Practical part

Some methods of forming a solid development of writing skills.

For fast and firm learning of letters by children, especially those who have difficulty in learning to read and write, as well as for the acquisition of initial reading and writing skills Kovshikov V.A. makes the following recommendations.

Moreover, letters become actually letters only as part of words.

1) The child needs to be explained that all letters (except hard and soft sign)corresponds to a certain sound or sounds, and vice versa:letter A (a) - sound [a], letter B (b) - sound [b], etc. Establishing a connection between sound and letter, you need to pronounce exactly the sound (!), not the name of the letter. For example, learning the letter B, you need to pronounce not [be], but [b]; when studying the letter B, you need to pronounce not [ve], but [v]; etc.

Tasks: after the initial acquaintance with the letter, the child is shown it, and he pronounces the corresponding sound; the teacher pronounces a certain sound, and the student among several different letters finds the right one.

2) The attention of the child is drawn to the fact thatletters are related to pronunciation- with special positions and movements of articulatory organs: jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate, vocal cords and others. For example, when reading aloud the letter A, we open our mouth wide; reading the letter P, we close and open our lips; reading K, we pull the tongue deep into the mouth and hit the palate with the tongue; reading G, we additionally connect the work of the vocal cords; etc.

Tasks: the teacher silently “pronounces” a certain sound, focusing the child’s attention on the most characteristic part of the articulation, or shows articulation with his hand (for example, “cup” brushes - sound [w], brush “slide” - sound [s]), or draws some part of the articulation (for example: ____ - the position of the tip of the tongue when pronouncing [w]; ___ - the position of the tip of the tongue when pronouncing [s]), and the student in all these cases among several different letters finds the right one.

3) Explain to the child thateach letter is a special pattern.At the same time, the letters look like non-alphabetic images: the letter B looks like a bicycle, b looks like a squirrel; etc. To consolidate this connection, it is recommended to learn verses.

4) Also, the child should know thatletters are made up of elements.

All printed letters can be made up of certain elements that are shown to the child. All handwritten lowercase letters can be made up of the following elements (also shown to the child).

Elements of letters can be made of wire, cardboard, plasticine or other material.

Tasks: construction and reconstruction of letters from their elements (examples of reconstruction: P → N → I; p → r → p). At the same time, the form and number of elements, their sequence, their relationship to each other, the peculiarities of the location of the letter in space are memorized, the similarity and difference of letters are established (for example: B - P; S - E; c - e; w - w; k - n).

5) The letter is also the movement of the writing hand.Before independently writing a letter in a notebook, the student circles the letter written by the teacher with his index finger, writes the letter in the air. It is necessary to analyze the movements: where the hand is directed (up, down, left, right), what is the nature of the movements (they are straight, rounded, etc.).

Before the start of writing letters (and subsequently words, sentences), as well as during recording (synchronously with it) and after itobligatory pronunciationaloud the corresponding sounds (words, sentences).

6) It should be well remembered thatevery letter in a word is important.With the replacement of a letter, its distortion, omission, rearrangement, repetition, the meaning of the word changes or is lost. For example: CAT → CURRENT → WHO → TO → CT.

Between all the named components of the letter (acoustic, articulatory, optical, general motor and semantic) it is necessary to establish various connections (see examples above).

The letter being studied should become a word as soon as possible.(for example, C - preposition: WITH MOM; AND - union: MOM AND DAD) or a sentence word (for example: “Huh?” - a question; “U!” - a threat), or be part of a word (sentence words) . Only under this condition, as already mentioned, the letter will be a letter proper - it will acquire meaning or significance (in the composition of the word).

Therefore, after the initial acquaintance with the letter, the establishment of various connections between its componentsit is necessary to create such real life situations in which the letter would be used as a word or included in the composition of words.For example, when studying the letter -A, you can create such situations and signify them like this: it hurts - “A!”; question ("what?") - "And?"; surprise - "A-A-A"; etc. We do the same with other letters (if possible). For example, when learning the letter -M, it should be included in such words: MU (mooing of a cow), AM! UM, MOM, MUMU. At MUMU UM. MUMU AM!

For various reasons, it is better to study the letters in the following sequence: X-L-R-S-Z-Sh-F-Ts-Sch-E-F-b.

First, it is better to learn printed letters, then handwritten ones.

At first, letters should be entered into the syllabic constructions “consonant-vowel” (for example: MAMA, MUMU, PAPA, PUMA, TATA), “vowel-consonant” (for example: UM, AM! AP!) and “consonant-vowel-consonant " (for example: TAM, HERE, PAT), then into others (in particular, into syllables with a confluence of consonants).

In the transition to reading and writing two or more letter words, the so-calledphonemic (sound) analysis of words.It includes a wide variety of operations. Let us briefly characterize some of them.

(a) Isolation of sound against the background of the word:the teacher pronounces a sound (for example, [y]), and then a word or a series of words that contain and do not contain this sound. The student must determine whether these words have a highlighted sound.

(b) Sound Extraction:students are offered a word in which they must name the last and / or first sound of the word.

(in) Determining the place of sound in a word:the teacher highlights a sound, and the student determines where this sound is in the word: 1) at its absolute beginning, 2) at its absolute end, or 3) in the middle.

(G) Determining the position of a sound in relation to other sounds:the teacher pronounces the word, highlights the sound in it, and the student must name what or what sounds are before or after dedicated sound.

(e) Determining the sequence of sounds in a word:the teacher pronounces the word, the student needs to separately name the sounds of this word in the proper sequence.

(e) Determination of the order of the sound (sounds) in the word:the teacher pronounces the word, highlights the sound in it, the student needs to determine what this sound is in order: the first, the third, etc.

(and) Determining the number of sounds in a word:the teacher pronounces the word, the student determines the number of sounds included in it.

(h) Composing a word from a given sequence of sounds (phonemic synthesis):the teacher pronounces sounds separately in the proper sequence, the student makes a word out of them.

(and) Phonemic generalizations:for example, when students come up with words that include one or another sound (for example, [t], [s], [p]).

Before writing words, you need to determine their sound-letter composition, and during recording, you need to know where you are in the recording, that is, what you are writing, what you have already written and what you have to write.Remember to speak out loud!

From the very beginning, reading and writing should be included in various forms of children's activities (communication, games, construction, drawing, etc.) and satisfy their needs.

PRINTED LETTERS

Arch

HIGH A AND Slender A LETTER A A . he is very similar to Arch.

handwritten letters

Watermelon

The letter a a - k a r a puz,

Round with ponytail watermelon.

Literature

Kovshikov V. A. Alphabet in pictures and verses. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
Lalaeva R. I. Disorders of written speech. - M., 1989.
Speech therapy: a textbook for universities / Ed. L. S. Volkova, S. N. Shakhovskaya. – M.: VLADOS, 1998.
Luria A. R. Essays on the psychophysiology of writing. - M., 1950.
Reader on speech therapy. / Ed. L. S. Volkova, V.I. Seliverstov. - M., 1997. - Part II.
Tsvetkova L. S. et al. Methodology for assessing speech in affasia. - M., 1981.

Luria A.R. defined reading as a special form of impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing (in any form) begins with a certain idea, the preservation of which contributes to the inhibition of all extraneous tendencies (running ahead, repetitions, etc.) . The letter itself includes a number of special operations:

§ analysis of the sound composition of the word to be recorded:

§ determination of the sequence of sounds in a word;

§ clarification of sounds, i.e. the transformation of currently audible sound variants into clear generalized speech sounds - phonemes.

At first, both of these processes proceed completely consciously, in the future they are automated. Acoustic analysis and synthesis proceed with the closest participation of articulation;

§ translation of phonemes (audible sounds) into graphemes, i.e. into visual schemes of graphic signs, taking into account the spatial arrangement of their elements;

§ “recoding” of the visual schemes of letters into a kinetic system of successive movements necessary for recording (graphemes are translated into kinems).

Recoding is carried out in the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex (parietal-temporal-occipital region). Morphologically, tertiary zones are finally formed at the 10-11th year of life.

The motivational level of writing is provided by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Including them in a functional writing system ensures the creation of an idea that is held through inner speech. Retention of information in memory is ensured by the holistic activity of the brain.

As A.R. Luria, “The share of each of the writing operations does not remain constant at different stages of motor skill development. At the first stages, the main attention of the writer is directed to the sound analysis of the word, and sometimes to the search for the desired grapheme. In the developed skill of writing, these moments recede into the background. When writing well-automated words, writing turns into smooth “kinetic stereotypes”. According to his concept, the entire initial period of learning to read and write is different in that the student pays attention to the technical prerequisites of writing, i.e. ways of decomposing a word into sounds and writing them in letters. Only after 1.5-2 years of such training, writing gradually begins to become a means of communication, the skill of writing turns into genuine written speech.

When the eye and hand are actively involved in the process of writing, the question of the interaction of the auditory, visual, speech-motor and motor components of writing becomes of particular importance. As P.L. Gorfunkel notes, some researchers were inclined to suggest that visual participation in writing is optional, believing that the writing of a literate person is based on the ability of auditory and speech-motor representations to directly include motor representations, bypassing the visual link. But the more important role should play vision in the very act of developing writing, when such motor representations have not yet been formed.

Writing can be considered as a motor act, in which its motor composition and semantic structure are distinguished. The motor composition of writing is very complex and differs in originality at each stage of mastering the skill. So, a child who starts learning to read and write begins with mastering the semantic aspect of writing. Unlike an illiterate child who “draws” letters with all the features of a font as a geometric pattern, a novice student perceives letters as semantic schemes associated with both their sound images and descriptive images of words. Professor N.A. Bernstein noted that the act of cursive writing in the formed form includes a number of factors:

§ the general tonic background of the writing hand and the entire working posture;

§ vibrational innervation of the muscles of the forearm, wrist and fingers, which is very rhythmic and monotonous;

§ the implementation of the roundness of the movement and its temporary (rhythmic) pattern;

§ the implementation of the descriptive side of the letter (the contours of the letters and what constitutes an essential part of the handwriting).

In the act of writing, there are certainly elements of adjusting to space: a skilled grip and holding of the writing instrument, the realization of the movement of the tip of the writing instrument along the surface of the paper along real or imaginary rulers, etc.

The trajectory of the writing tip when writing is not identical to the movements of the fingertips that guide the writing instrument. “Accurate cyclogrammetric observations of writing movements,” writes N.A. Bernstein, - show that even the fingertips closest to the pen make movements that are not planar and are so different from the movements of the writing point that their trace is no longer readable ... Thus, none of the points of the limb itself writes out in space a single letters, but only their sharply, although naturally, distorted modifications (anamorphoses). It is this recoding of movements and its automation that is one of the greatest difficulties for a novice student.

Also interesting is the researcher's remark that every child, regardless of the teaching method applied to him, inevitably goes through several phases. At the first stage of learning, the student writes large, and this is due not only to the roughness of his spatial coordination. The reason is that the larger the letter, the smaller the relative difference between the movements of the writing tip and the movements of the hand itself, i.e. the simpler and more accessible is the recoding, and this is confirmed by cyclographic observations.

Only as this recoding is mastered does the child begin to transfer first visual and then proprioceptive corrections to the writing point, acquiring the ability to automatically provide him with any required trajectory. Due to this, the size of the letters written out gradually decreases (a similar phenomenon occurs when acting with any tool: a needle, a knife, etc.).

Simultaneously with this process, the development of writing along the line is also taking place. The movement of the forearm, leading the writing instrument along the line, is gradually transferred from the competence of visual control to the area of proprioceptive. Then the even arrangement and direction of the lines are already successful on unmarked paper.

Finally, the most difficult thing is mastering cursive writing proper. At the same time, the correct distribution of pressures is mastered, i.e. force control along the third coordinate, perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Real cursive writing is developed only through long practice - already after leaving adolescence.

The position of N.A. Bernstein that “on the basis of accumulated experience, some part of external influences is gradually calculated, which can be taken into account in advance to a greater or lesser extent. This creates the possibility of preliminary ... corrections that are included in the very initial moments of a given episode of movement.

Preliminary corrections are replacing "secondary corrections" that correct the movement as deviations actually accumulate.

Apparently, an indication of the formation of the skill of preliminary corrections should be included in the methodology of teaching writing as a conscious task, for the solution of which purposeful pedagogical techniques are needed.

So, the goal of the initial period of learning to read and write is the formation of a complex unity, including ideas about the acoustic, articulatory, optical and kinetic image of the word.

graduate work

1.1 Psychophysiological structure of the writing process

Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development.

As O.V. Pravdina notes, one of the differences between written speech and oral speech is additional funds language value expressions. Understanding of oral speech is facilitated by the expressiveness of speech, facial expressions and gestures of the speaker, as well as the general situation in which speech is realized. In the process of writing, all this is replaced by dividing speech into words, using punctuation marks, a red line, a capital letter, different spellings of words that sound the same but have different meanings, underlining, highlighting in a special font, as well as accompanying text drawings, tables and, of course, connection with the entire text.

Oral speech is formed first, and written speech - a superstructure over already matured oral speech - uses all its ready-made mechanisms, improving and significantly complicating them, adding new mechanisms specific to them. new form language expressions.

Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When writing is mastered, these operations appear in expanded form.

AR Luria in his work "Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing" defines the following operations of writing.

The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc. A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts. The initial thought corresponds to a certain sentence structure. In the process of writing, the writer must maintain the desired order of the phrase, focus on what he has already written and what he has to write.

Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with first-grade children. In the first series, they were offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

At the initial stages of mastering the skills of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word. The work of A. N. Gvozdev, N. Kh. Shvachkin, N. I. Krasnogorsky, V. I. Beltyukov, A. Vallon, and other researchers is devoted to the study of the question of the functional interaction of the speech-motor and speech-auditory analyzers in the process of the formation of oral speech.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. As P. L. Gorfunkel notes, some researchers were inclined to assume that visual participation in writing is not necessary, believing that the writing of a literate person is based on the ability of auditory and speech-motor representations to directly include motor representations, bypassing the visual link. But the greater role should play in the very act of formative writing, when the motor representations themselves, and not only their connections with auditory and speech-motor representations, have not yet been formed.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. This association of visual and auditory-speech-motor representations with the kinesthetic image of letters is provided by complex inter-analyzer relationships in which the functional capabilities of the motor analyzer play a significant role. According to N. A. Bernshtein, motion control is carried out different levels of the brain, which in ontogenesis are structurally and functionally formed gradually, interacting and subordinating in certain rhythms characteristic of certain types of activity. In particular, he believes that muscle activity during writing "is very rhythmic and proceeds as an elastic oscillation along an almost pure sinusoid - the most elementary of all the curves of oscillatory movement."

The functional system that ensures the normal process of writing includes various parts of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain and various analyzer systems (acoustic, optical, motor, etc.), and each of them ensures the normal flow of only one, any link in the structure letters, and all together - the normal conditions for the implementation of a complex holistic process of writing.

In the structure of writing and its psycho-physiological mechanisms, as in a complex activity, the following levels of organization are distinguished (A. R. Luria, E. D. Khomskaya, L. S. Tsvetkova, T. V. Akhutina):

The psychological level is realized through the work of the frontal parts of the brain - the anterior, posterior and mediobasal parts of the frontal area of the cerebral cortex. The psychological level includes a number of links:

The emergence of intention, motive for writing;

Creating an idea (what to write about);

Creation on its basis of a general meaning (what to write), content;

Regulation of activities and control over the actions performed.

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