Role and functions:

• 1. From the consumer's point of view:
  • - marketing makes consumers more informed
  • - marketing sets quality standards in the minds of consumers
  • - marketing makes consumers more controllable
• 2. Enterprise Perspective:
  • - Analysis environment and market research
  • - Analysis of real and potential needs
  • - Product planning
  • - Sales planning
  • - Product promotion planning
  • - Price planning

Question 6. The process of planning new products

The process of product planning and the creation of new products affects all areas of the company. All departments of the company are involved in one way or another, including the sales department, the production department, the research department, the financial group, the legal service, etc.

The planning process new products includes 8 stages:

Generation of ideas- this is a kind of search for opportunities - the creation of a product of market novelty. Ideas for creating a new product arise in marketing laboratories as a result of conducting surveys or analyzing complaints from consumers, considering proposals from sales agents, patent information, and the conclusions of experts in engineering and technology.

Choice of ideas . If the goal of the preliminary stage was to generate as many ideas as possible, then here, on the contrary, reducing this number by removing the unsuitable. The filter list for new products includes the following characteristics:

• - general analysis of products;
• - potential profit;
• - competition;
• - market size;
• - the level of investment;
• - the possibility of patenting;
• - the degree of development of science and technology;
• - impact on existing products;
• - marketing characteristics;
• - resistance to seasonal factors;
• - ease of production;
• - availability of resources;
• - the possibility of production at competitive prices It is necessary to determine the possibility of patenting, this will give the inventor the opportunity to obtain exclusive rights to sell for 17 years Determining patentability includes questions such as:
• - can the proposal be patented?
• - or patented competing products?
• What is the duration of patents?
• - available patents from competing licensing firms?
• - there are no patent infringements in a competing firm?
• - description of the size, structure of the target market, indicator of sales volume, market share and profit for the next few years
• - general information about the price of the product, the general approach to its distribution, the estimate of marketing costs during the first year
• - long-term goals in terms of sales and profits, the formation of a marketing mix.

proof of concept comes down to presenting the intended product to the consumer and thereby changing his attitude towards the product, making him want to make a purchase at this early stage of development

Economic analysis accepted ideas is based on the study of forecasts of demand, costs, competition, necessary investments, profits. The process of developing a new product is associated with making decisions about the design of the product, its equipment, choosing a brand, determining the properties of the product, unknown to the buyer, and checking the consumer's attitude to the new product.

Trial Marketing used to test a new product market relations. It involves clarifying the issues of the place, the period of sale of the goods, the nature of the information to be obtained, and the results of processing.

8. Commercial implementation corresponds to the stage of implementation of the life cycle, includes the implementation of a marketing plan and full-scale production, requires significant costs, and rapid management decisions.

Among the factors to be considered during the commercial implementation period are the following:

• - speed of determination by consumers;
• - speed of determination by sales channels;
• - distribution intensity;
• - production possibilities;
• - promotion structure;
• - prices;
• - competition;
• - time to achieve profitability;
• - the cost of commercial implementation.

Taganrog: TSURE Publishing House, 1999.

1. ESSENCE, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF MARKETING

1.1. The essence of marketing and its role in the economy

Marketing is one of the fundamental disciplines for market professionals such as retailers, advertisers, marketing researchers, new and branded product managers, and the like. They need to know how to describe the market and break it down into segments; how to assess the needs, requests and preferences of consumers within the target market; how to design and test a product with the consumer properties necessary for this market; how to convey to the consumer the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe value of the product through the price; how to choose skillful intermediaries so that the product is widely available, well presented; how to advertise and sell a product so that consumers know it and want to buy it.

The purpose of the course: mastering the basics of this discipline by students to prepare them for making qualified decisions in the field of marketing. The relationship of the course "Marketing" with other disciplines is shown in Figure 1.1.

According to the founder of the theory of marketing, the American scientist F Kotler marketing - a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and requirements through exchange. To clarify this definition, consider the concepts: need, need, request, product, exchange, transaction, market.

Fig.1.1. The main relationship of the course "Marketing" with other disciplines.

The initial idea underlying marketing is the idea of ​​human needs, where under the term " need "- understands the feeling of a lack of something by a person. The needs of people are diverse and complex. These are physical needs for food, clothing, warmth, security, and social needs for spiritual closeness, influence and affection; and personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. They are basic constituents of human nature.

The second initial idea of ​​marketing is need.

Need - a need that has taken a specific form in accordance with the cultural level and personality of the individual.

To meet the needs, manufacturers take targeted actions to stimulate the desire to possess goods. The marketing agent does not create a need, it already exists. So, for example, a manufacturer of information systems may believe that the consumer needs his Information system, while in fact the consumer needs information. The needs of people are unlimited, but the resources to satisfy them are limited. So a person will choose those goods that give him the greatest satisfaction within his financial capabilities.

Demand is a need backed by purchasing power. It is not difficult to enumerate the demand of a particular society at a particular point in time. However, demand is not a reliable indicator, as it changes. Changes in choice are affected by both price changes and income levels. A person chooses a product whose combination of properties provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.

Human needs, wants and demands are satisfied by goods. Under commodity we will understand what can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of attracting attention, acquisition, use or consumption.

The manufacturer of a product must find consumers to whom they want to sell the product, find out their needs, and then create a product that satisfies their needs as best as possible.

Exchange - this is the basic concept of marketing as a scientific discipline. Marketing only takes place when people decide to satisfy their needs and demands through exchange. An exchange is the act of receiving a desired object from someone with an offer of something in return.

To make a voluntary exchange, five conditions must be met:
1. There must be at least two parties.
2. Each side must have something that could be of value to the other side.
3. Each party must be able to communicate and deliver its goods.
4. Each party must be completely free to accept or reject the proposal of the other party.
5. Each party must be confident in the expediency or desirability of dealing with the other party.

Deal is the basic unit of measure in marketing.

Deal - this is a commercial exchange of values ​​between two parties, it assumes the presence of several conditions:
1. The presence of two value-significant objects;
2. Agreed conditions for its implementation;
3. An agreed time of completion;
4. Agreed venue.

Market is the totality of existing and potential buyers of the product. In a developed society, the market is not necessarily some physical place for transactions. In the presence of modern means of communication and transport, the exchange is carried out through advertising, television, the Internet system, etc. without making physical contact with customers.

Marketing - this is the final concept of the market cycle, it is working with the market to carry out exchanges, the purpose of which is to satisfy human needs and requirements.

The process of exchange requires work: it is the search for buyers, identifying their needs, designing appropriate products, promoting them to the market, warehousing, transportation, pricing, organizing a service, advertising.

The role of marketing in the economy - increasing its trading and operational efficiency. At the present stage, marketing is understood as an expression of a market-oriented managerial style thinking capable of not only reacting to the development of the market situation, but also changing the parameters of the environment itself, providing access to the market, expanding the market, and ensuring market security.

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Marketing is the basis of a market economy

Prerequisites for the emergence of marketing

Marketing as a concept of managing the actions of market entities in a competitive environment has gained its fame on a global scale due to its effective application in both commercial and non-commercial areas. Standing out as an independent science at the beginning of the last 20th century, it reasonably took its place among the achievements of economic sciences and business practice. The successful activity of each market entity in a competitive environment has a positive effect on the overall well-being, which largely depends on the effective marketing management of the relevant objects.

Prerequisites for the emergence of marketing at the end of the XIX century. there was a "wild market" (unorganized competition, ignoring the needs of the consumer, the concentration of industrial and commercial capital, monopoly, etc.) and antitrust laws, i.e. state regulation market.

In 1902, the teaching of marketing as a science was introduced at US universities.

1910–1920 marked the beginning of the development of a coherent theory about market regulation tools.

Initially, it was supposed to organize a system of market sales on a scientific basis, which was called distribution. Distribution is distribution in the market. In the course of its development, the theory begins to cover the process of product promotion, the study of demand and its satisfaction, etc. And so in the early 1920s. economist A. Cox proposed another name - "marketing".

Stages of marketing development

The stages of development of marketing as a science are closely related to the stages of market development and the market orientation of the company.

The first stage is related to the orientation towards production (it lasted approximately until the 1930s), i.e. The company's activities are aimed at using production possibilities. So, at this time, demand far exceeds supply, and therefore any manufacturer can sell his product (the quantity of the product, not its quality, plays an important role). There is competition between buyers.

Another characteristic feature given period of time is a monopoly market. At a certain point, the monopoly of a particular product becomes a brake on the development of its market, so either the state intervenes (antimonopoly policy), or the company is forced to reorient its activities, preventing the fall in consumer demand. As a result, there appears marketing concept improvement of production, where the main drawback is the narrowness of the product range. This direction is used in the production of consumer goods. Ultimately, supply begins to exceed demand, a situation of abundance of goods arises. In 1929–1931 the presence of overproduction shows that it is not enough to produce a product, one must be able to sell it.

The second stage is related to sales orientation (1930–1959). The main idea of ​​this concept was that it is necessary to make significant marketing efforts in order for the product to be in demand. Firms began to use various methods of selling their products - from aggressive (forcing a one-time purchase) to focusing the consumer on long-term purchases. Good organized production and an extensive distribution network gives priority to more expensive or lower quality goods. The task of the manufacturer was to produce as much product as possible and sell it as sophisticatedly as possible. All this has led to the fact that the market is oversaturated with a narrow product range, and increased competition has forced companies to apply the concept of "product improvement". The bottom line is that a product will be in demand if it good quality, and therefore, the key to success is the continuous improvement of the quality of the manufactured product. The disadvantages are: the high price, the "passion" of the company for its product, and many others.

Subsequently, the “consumer concept” appears (late 1970s), based on the desires and preferences of the consumer. And sales will be successful if production is preceded by a study of the situation and market needs. The orientation of the company to the immediate needs of the individual often contradicted the long-term well-being of the whole society, which led to the need to focus on social and ethical marketing (1980s), this concept is characterized by the fact that if the production of goods causes negative processes in nature or in some way harms society, then such production should be eliminated or modified. All this is possible only in a society with a developed market that has gone through many years of mass orientation towards marketing.

Each of the above concepts has its pros and cons. The marketing concept proposed by J. McCarthy tried to connect the structural elements. This system includes five areas of market activity of firms:

1) sellers and buyers (people);

2) product (product);

3) price (price);

4) sales promotion (promotion);

5) product positioning on the market (place).

The concept originated in the 1960s. as a response to an unequivocal marketing decision.

The concept and essence of marketing

Marketing (from the English market - “market”) is the original unity of rigorous science and the ability to work effectively in the market.

Marketing is a single complex of organizing the production and marketing of goods (services), aimed at identifying and meeting the needs of a specific group of consumers in order to make a profit.

Marketing is a relatively young science (about a hundred years), but this does not mean that before the recognition of this science, no one used its methods. Basically, this happened on a subconscious level: from the moment the product and the market appeared, each merchant was interested in selling his product using various promotion attempts (advertising, customer research, etc.). Naturally, this was all at a primitive level. And only in recent decades in the science of management a new trend has appeared, with clearly defined boundaries, functions, goals, methods, called "marketing". This term appeared for the first time at the beginning of the 20th century. in the USA, and after only 15-20 years it penetrated and began to be actively used and developed in many countries of the world. Marketing begins its development in 1960-1970, it is influenced by both external and internal factors:

a) increased standard of living;

b) an increase in the share of disposable income;

c) improving the quality of services provided social sphere;

d) the development of communication systems (people are actively starting to travel, bringing with them not only new goods, but also new needs);

e) the desire to use their free time to their advantage.

In this regard, entrepreneurs are beginning to explore these factors in order to improve their products, increase sales and maximize profits. In these marketing programs, firms include measures to improve the quality of the product, its assortment groups, the study of buyers, potential competitors, pricing policy objectives, methods and techniques for increasing demand, and much more.

Marketing is a kind of philosophy of production, which is constantly subject to the market, political, economic and social influences. With the right "understanding of the environment", the ability to quickly respond to market changes, the ability to accept flexibility in solving strategic and tactical tasks, marketing can become the foundation for the long-term and profitable activities of any company.

In the very essence of marketing, certain concepts are laid down: need (need), request (demand), product and exchange. The initial component of human nature is need: the need for food, clothing, warmth, security, and so on, i.e. need is a person's feeling of lack of something. But the need, which has taken a specific form under the influence of the level of culture and personality of the individual, is called a need. Needs are limitless, and therefore a person chooses only those that allow him his financial capabilities. The world of goods and services is designed to satisfy human needs.

A need backed by purchasing power is called demand. Demand is a variable. It is influenced by such factors as the price level, income level, fashion and many others.

A product is something that can satisfy a need (need) and is offered to the market for the purpose of sale.

Exchange is the act of receiving something in return for something.

The commercial exchange of values ​​between the two sides is a transaction.

To complete a transaction, certain conditions must be met:

a) availability of objects of the transaction;

b) the presence of the subjects of the transaction;

c) determination of the terms of the transaction;

d) determining the time and place of the transaction.

Any transaction takes place in the market. In modern society, the market is not necessarily a physical quantity (place).

Hence the role of marketing for the economy is to increase trade and market efficiency.

Marketing Principles

One of the foundations of the activity of any enterprise operating on the principles of marketing is the motto: "to produce only what the market needs, what the buyer will demand." The main idea of ​​marketing is the idea of ​​human needs, which is the essence of this science. From this follow the basic principles, which include:

1) achievement of the final justified result of the company's activities;

2) taking over a certain market share in the long run;

3) efficient implementation goods;

4) choice of effective marketing strategy and pricing policies;

5) the creation of market novelty products that allow the company to be profitable;

6) constantly conduct market research in order to study demand for further active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers;

7) use A complex approach to link the set goals with the available resources and capabilities of the company;

8) search for new ways for the company to improve the efficiency of the production line, the creative initiative of the staff to introduce innovations;

9) improving product quality;

10) cost reduction;

11) organize the delivery of the company's products in such a volume, at a place and time that would most suit the end user;

12) monitor the scientific and technological progress of the society;

13) to achieve advantages in the fight against competitors.

The experience and practice of marketing clearly indicated that the use of only some components (studying the product or studying consumers) does not give the desired result. Only an integrated approach gives a result to the enterprise - it allows you to enter the market with your product and be profitable.

Goals and objectives of marketing

Marketing is a social science and therefore affects a great many people. For a number of reasons (education, social status, religious beliefs, and much more) the attitude to this discipline is ambiguous, giving rise to contradictions. On the one hand, marketing is an integral part of the life of a product, on the other hand, it carries a negative perception: the creation of unnecessary needs, develops greed in a person, “attacks” with advertising from all sides.

What are the true goals of marketing?

Many believe that the main goal of this science is sales and promotion.

P. Drucker (management theorist) writes as follows: “The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. Its goal is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service will fit the customer exactly and sell itself.”

It does not follow from this that sales and promotion efforts lose their importance. Most likely they become part of the marketing activities of the enterprise to achieve the main goal - maximizing sales and profits. From the foregoing, we can conclude that marketing is a type of human activity that is aimed at satisfying human needs and requirements through exchange.

So, the main goals of marketing are the following.

1. Maximization of a possibly high level of consumption - firms are trying to increase their sales, maximize profits using various methods and methods (introduce fashion for their products, outline a sales growth strategy, etc.).

2. Maximization of consumer satisfaction, i.e. The goal of marketing is to identify existing needs and offer the widest possible range of a homogeneous product. But since the level of customer satisfaction is very difficult to measure, it is marketing activities difficult in this direction.

3. Maximization of choice. This goal follows and, as it were, is a continuation of the previous one. The difficulty in realizing this goal lies in not creating branded abundance and imaginary choice in the market. And some consumers, with an excess of certain product categories, experience a feeling of anxiety and confusion.

4. Maximizing the quality of life. Many tend to believe that the presence of a range of goods favorably affects its quality, quantity, availability, cost, i.e. the product is “improved”, and therefore, the consumer can satisfy his needs as much as possible, improve the quality of life. Proponents of this view recognize that improving the quality of life is a noble goal, but at the same time, this quality is difficult to measure, so sometimes contradictions are born.

Marketing Tasks:

1) research, analysis, assessment of the needs of real and potential buyers;

2) marketing assistance in the development of a new product (service);

3) provision of after-sales service;

4) Marketing communications;

5) research, analysis, evaluation and forecasting of the state of real and potential markets;

6) research activities of competitors;

7) sale of goods (services);

8) formation of assortment policy;

9) formation and implementation of the company's pricing policy;

10) formation of a strategy for the behavior of the company.

Marketing Functions

General Functions marketing is management, organization, planning, forecasting, analysis, evaluation, accounting, control. The specific functions are: market, consumer and demand research, environmental research, implementation commodity policy firms, organization of service maintenance, pricing policy, product distribution, maintaining and stimulating demand, etc.

Marketing functions are the interconnection of activities.

The functions of marketing derive from its principles and come in the following widows:

1) analytical - this is a comprehensive analysis of micro and macro environments, which includes an analysis of markets, consumers, demand, competitors and competition, as well as products;

2) production - this is the production of new goods that meet the ever-increasing requirements of consumers and includes the organization of the production of a new product, the organization of supply and quality management;

3) marketing - this is a function that includes everything that happens to the product after its production, but before the start of consumption, namely: the organization of product distribution, the organization of service, the organization of demand formation and sales promotion, the formation of commodity and pricing policies;

4) management: the search for possible ways to develop the activities of the enterprise, especially in the long term, i.e. organization of strategy and planning, information management, organization of communications;

5) control.

Marketing concept

At one time, F. Kotler, a professor of marketing at Northwestern University in the USA, gave the concept of the "concept of marketing", defining it "as a relatively new approach in entrepreneurial activity where the key to achieving the goals of the organization is to determine the needs and requirements of target markets and provide the desired satisfaction in a more efficient and more productive way than competitors.

In other words, F. Kotler defines the essence of the concept of marketing using expressions like: “Find needs and satisfy them”, “Love the client, not the product”, “Produce what you can sell instead of trying to sell what you can produce ”, “To do everything in our power to fully recoup every dollar of value spent by the client with value, quality and satisfaction.” In other words, the main object of the marketing concept is a comprehensive study of the company's customers with their requests, needs and needs. The firm must build all its activities with the calculation of maximum customer satisfaction, in return receiving the corresponding profit.

According to F. Kotler, the core of the marketing concept is focusing on the needs, requests and needs of customers, maximizing consumer satisfaction to achieve the main goal of the company.

Thus, the starting point of the concept is the theory of consumer sovereignty. F. Kotler, conducting research, as well as relying on marketing concepts taken in a historical context, identified five global, basic concepts on the basis of which any company interested in making a profit has conducted (is and will conduct) its activities.

1. Improvement of production: the main idea of ​​this concept is that consumers choose (buy) those goods that they know and that suit them at a price. Therefore, managers of firms should first of all improve production, and then - increase the efficiency of the distribution system. This concept works in the following situations: when there is a shortage of a certain product on the market and when the cost price needs to be reduced to increase demand.

And the economic-administrative (with emphasis on the first word) model should become a priority. And there is nothing new to invent here. Among the main and proven tools for regulating a market economy are the following: a financial and credit system with a perfect tax, emission and customs policy, financing, credit, strategy and tactics of interest rates; ...

Movement and trends in world prices. This is inevitable if we really want to build a market economy and maximize the benefits of economic cooperation with the world community. In the context of mutual economic dependence of the CIS countries, pricing issues are becoming increasingly relevant. They are solved by the conclusion by the CIS countries of intergovernmental agreements on ...

Edition: Market Oriented Management

Chapter 1.

The role of marketing in a company and in a market economy

Marketing is both a business philosophy and an action-oriented process. The first chapter is devoted to the description approach- explanation of the ideological foundations of marketing and their impact on the activities and organization of the company. Marketing as active process performs a number of tasks necessary for the normal functioning of a market economy. Another purpose of this chapter is to characterize these challenges, the importance and complexity of which are changing as technology, economics, competitiveness, and the international environment evolve. Within this framework, we will consider the impact of the above changes in the environment on the management of the firm and, in particular, on the marketing function.

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will gain an understanding of:

• theoretical and ideological foundations of marketing;
• differences between "operational" and "strategic" marketing;
• the role of marketing in relation to other functions;
• tasks performed by marketing in market economy;
• stages of implementation of marketing in the organization of the company;
• limitations of the traditional marketing concept.

Ideological foundations of marketing

The term "marketing" - now used not only in English, but also in many other languages ​​- is extremely "loaded", ambiguous and often misinterpreted, and this applies not only to the opponents of marketing, but also to its supporters. Most often this term is used in three meanings.

• Marketing is advertising, sales promotion and the imposition of goods on the buyer, in other words, a complex of quite aggressive sales tools, used to penetrate existing markets. In this first, mercantile, sense, marketing is seen as something applied in the markets. consumer goods and much less often in more "complex" sectors such as high technology, financial services, state and local government, and public and cultural organizations.
• Marketing is complex tools market analysis - such as sales forecasting methods, simulation models, various market research - used for a deeper, more scientific approach to the analysis of needs and demand. Many of these methods are quite complex and expensive, and therefore are often considered the prerogative of large enterprises inaccessible to small and medium-sized firms. Hence the idea of ​​them as unnecessarily complex mechanisms, requiring high costs and low practical value.
• Marketing is active advertising, consumer society architect, i.e., a market system where individuals are commercially exploited by sellers. It is necessary to continuously create new needs in order to sell more and more more items. Consumers become distant from the seller in the same way that employees become distant from the employer.

Behind these somewhat simplistic views, there are three characteristics of the marketing concept:

• action(conquest of markets);
• analysis(market research);
• culture(mindset).

In most cases, marketing is reduced to its effective characteristics, that is, to a set of sales methods (operational marketing), and the analytical component (strategic marketing) does not receive due attention.

This understanding of the role of marketing implies that marketing and advertising are omnipotent, that with the help of appropriate methods of communication it is possible to force the market to accept anything. Such methods of imposing goods and services are developed and applied regardless of whether the company seeks to satisfy the real needs of customers. The focus is on the needs of the seller, i.e. closing the deal.

The myth of the omnipotence of marketing is quite stable, and despite the fact that there are plenty of refutation of it. For example, the fact that most (over 50%) of new products and trademarks fails indicates that markets have the ability to resist the supposedly irresistible power of marketing.

The principle of consumer sovereignty

Despite the prevalence of the misconception described above, marketing is based on a completely different theory, or ideology. In fact, the philosophy that underpins marketing - it can be called the concept of marketing - is based on individual choice theory and its practical implementation in the form principle of consumer sovereignty. From this point of view, marketing is nothing more than a public manifestation of principles that at the end of the 18th century. promoted by classical economists and which subsequently turned into operational rules of management. These principles, formulated by A. Smith, form the basis of a market economy and can be summarized as follows:

The well-being of society is the result not so much of altruistic behavior as the coincidence of the selfish interests of buyers and sellers, which is expressed in voluntary and competitive exchange.

Based on the fact that the pursuit of personal interests is inherent in most people - no matter how sad it may be from a moral point of view, however, the fact remains - A. Smith suggested accepting people as they are, but at the same time developing a system in which egocentric individuals "work" would be for the good of society, and not just for their own good. This is the system of voluntary and competitive exchange, controlled by invisible hand, or selfish pursuit of personal interests, ultimately in line with the interests of society as a whole.

AT modern economy this basic principle is applied in a slightly modified form: it takes into account social (solidarity) and public (externalities, public goods, government regulation) aspects. And yet it remains the main principle to which economic activity a successful firm operating under free competition. Moreover, today we can say with confidence that the countries that rejected the ideas of A. Smith are currently in a less favorable economic situation. A clear confirmation of this is the upheavals in Eastern Europe and the active transition of new and backward countries to a market economy. economic system(through deregulation and privatization).

In our opinion, the market economy is based on four main provisions. At first glance, these provisions are simple, but their consequences in terms of a philosophical approach to the market are truly enormous:

• Individuals strive for remuneration; it is greed that pushes people to work and achieve results. This striving is the engine of growth, or individual development, and ultimately determines the overall well-being.
• Individual choice: the individual chooses his own reward. Remuneration depends on tastes, culture, values, etc. With respect to the value or, conversely, the insignificance of this choice or the division of needs into “true” and “false”, no rules apply, except for the ethical, moral and accepted in society. social norms. The system is pluralistic and involves a variety of tastes and preferences.
• Individuals and organizations with which individuals deal best achieve their goals through free and competitive exchange. An exchange is free only when it benefits both parties; the competitive nature of the exchange lies in the fact that the danger of abuse of market power by producers is limited.
• The mechanisms of a market economy are based on the principle of individual freedom, or, more precisely, principle of consumer sovereignty. The moral foundation of the system is based on the recognition of the fact that individuals are responsible for their actions and can decide for themselves what is good for them and what is bad.

Marketing areas

Marketing is based on these four principles. From this arises a philosophy of action that is valid in any organization that serves the needs of any group of consumers. The entire scope of marketing can be divided into three areas:

• consumer Marketing, when transactions are carried out between companies and end-users, individuals or households;
• business marketing(B2B marketing), when both sides of the exchange are represented by organizations;
• social marketing, covering the scope non-profit organizations such as museums, universities, etc.

From this approach it follows that the main goal of all activities carried out in the organization should be to satisfy the needs of customers. Provided, of course, that it is in the best possible way achieve the organization's growth and profitability goals. The course of action is dictated not by altruism, but by the self-interest of the organization.

This is the ideology of marketing. It is not hard to guess that there is a big difference between what marketing should be and what it really is. You don't have to look far for examples. However, a successful firm must strive for perfect marketing. Maybe perfect marketing is a myth, but it is driving myth which firms must constantly be guided by in their activities.

Two facets of marketing

The application by the firm of the philosophy of action discussed above in practice involves two approaches:

• Goals strategic marketing usually include: systematic and continuous analysis of the needs and requests of key consumer groups, as well as the development and production of goods (service provision), which will allow the company to serve selected groups or segments more efficiently than competitors. Achieving these goals, the company provides a sustainable competitive advantage.
• Role operational marketing includes the organization of distribution, marketing and communication policy in order to inform potential buyers and promote the distinctive qualities of the product while reducing information costs.

These goals are complementary in nature and are implemented through branding policy - a key tool for applying the concept of marketing in a market economy. Accordingly, we propose to define marketing as follows:

Marketing is a social process aimed at satisfying the needs and desires of individuals and organizations through the creation of a free competitive exchange of goods and services that create value for the buyer.

This definition combines three fundamental concepts: need, commodity and exchange. concept needs requires consideration of the motivation and behavior of consumers, individuals or organizations; concept goods or service is associated with the manufacturer's response to market expectations; exchange refers us to the market and those mechanisms that ensure the interaction of supply and demand.

The role of marketing in a company

By itself, the term "marketing", literally meaning the process of providing something to the market, does not reflect the dualism inherent in this process, in other words, the term emphasizes not so much the "analytical" as the "active" side of this process. (As digression note that, in order to avoid confusion, the French Academy proposed to use the terms la mercatique and le marcheage- specifically to highlight these two aspects of marketing. In practice, these terms are rarely used in French business circles.) For this reason, the concepts of "strategic" and "operational" marketing are used.

Operational Marketing

Operational marketing is action-oriented process carried out over a short or medium term and directed to existing markets or segments. In essence, this is the classic commercial process of achieving target market share through tactical means, related to product, distribution (place), price and communication (promotion) - the four Ps of the marketing mix, as they are often called in professional jargon. The operational marketing plan contains the goals, position description, tactics and budgets for each brand the company has for a given period of time in a given geographic region.

The economic role of marketing in the activities of the company is displayed in fig. 1.2. It shows how the four main managerial functions: research and development, production, marketing and finance.

The main task of operational marketing is to receive revenue from sales, or target turnover. This means that the firm must "sell" and find purchase orders using the most efficient distribution methods while minimizing costs. From the point of view of the production department, the goal of achieving a certain sales volume is "translated" into the corresponding production program, from the point of view of the sales department - into the program of storage and physical distribution of products. Thus, operational marketing is a determining factor on which the company's profitability in the short term directly depends.

The degree of operational marketing vigor is a decisive factor for a firm, especially in highly competitive markets. Any product, even the best one, must be sold at a price acceptable to the market, be available at convenient and familiar points of sale for target consumers, and be supported by various media that promote the product and highlight its distinctive qualities. Situations where demand exceeds supply, or where the firm is well known to potential users, or where there are no competitors, are rare.

There are many examples of promising products that were never seen on the market due to lack of commercial support. First of all, this applies to firms where the "engineering" spirit prevails, i.e. it is believed that a quality product will certainly be recognized, and the company does not want to adapt it in accordance with customer requests:

This attitude is especially characteristic of Latin culture. Mercury is the patron of trade, as well as thieves, so Christ drove the merchants out of the temple; as a result, selling and advertising are still considered shameful activities.

Operational marketing is the most pronounced, most visible aspect of marketing, primarily because of the importance of advertising and sales promotion. Some organizations, such as banks, "came" to marketing through advertising. Other firms - many manufacturers of industrial goods - on the contrary, for a long time refused to believe that marketing has a place in their business, thereby implicitly associating marketing with advertising.

Thus, operational marketing is commercial implement firm, without which even the best plan will not lead to satisfactory results. It is undeniable, however, that profitable operational marketing is impossible without a reliable, well-thought-out strategy. Dynamism without thought is just an unnecessary risk, nothing more. No matter how good the operational marketing plan is, it will not create demand if there is no need, nor will it be able to support activities that are doomed to extinction. Therefore, operational marketing can be profitable if it is based on a strategy, and this, in turn, is based on the needs of the market and their possible development.

Strategic Marketing

Strategic marketing is first and foremost an analysis needs individuals and organizations. From a marketing point of view, the buyer does not need the product as such, he needs solution, that a given product or service can provide. This solution can be obtained using various technologies, which themselves are constantly changing. The role of strategic marketing is to evolve in parallel with underlying market and identify different product markets or segments, existing or potential, through an analysis of the entire variety of needs to be satisfied.

The product markets identified represent various economic opportunities, advantage which need to be evaluated. The quantitative assessment of this advantage is the value potential market, dynamic assessment - an economically beneficial period for him, or the duration of his life cycle. The product market advantage for a firm depends on its own competitiveness, in other words, the firm's ability to meet customer needs better than its competitors. A firm is competitive if it has competitive advantage: either it can differentiate itself from its competitors through sustainable distinctive qualities, or it has higher productivity and, as a result, lower cost.

On fig. 1.2 shows the relationship of the various stages of strategic marketing with other major functions of the firm. Regardless of whether attracted whether the goods market or pushed by the company(or technological progress), it must be "tested" by strategic marketing for economic and financial viability. In this regard, the interaction between research and development, production and strategic marketing plays a decisive role. Decisions about the volume of production capacities and the amount of investment completely depend on the product market chosen as a result of such confrontational interaction. Consequently, the stability of the overall financial structure of the firm is at stake.

From this we can conclude that the role of strategic marketing is to: (a) exploit existing opportunities or (b) create attractive opportunities, i.e. opportunities that match the resources and know-how of the firm and promise potential for growth and profitability. The strategic marketing process has medium and long-term planning horizons, its task is to develop missions firms, setting goals, developing a development strategy and ensuring a balanced structure of the product portfolio. To summarize what has been said, let's compare the roles of operational and strategic marketing in Table. 1.2.

This task of reflection and strategic planning is significantly different from operational marketing and requires completely different skills. However, as Table. 1.2, these two roles are fully complementary, indicating that the development of a strategic plan should be carried out in close connection with operational marketing. In operational marketing, the emphasis is on variables unrelated to the product (distribution, pricing, advertising and sales promotion), in strategic marketing, on providing a more valuable product at a competitive price. In strategic marketing, the product markets that the firm will serve are selected and ordered in order of importance, and the primary demand in each of these markets is also predicted. Operational marketing sets goals for achieving market share and draws up the budgets necessary to achieve them.

As shown in fig. 1.3, comparing the target share of each commodity market and the corresponding forecast of primary demand, it is possible to develop sales target, first in terms of volume, and then, taking into account pricing policy, in the form of trade. Subtracting straight lines production costs, possible fixed costs for the creation of certain structures, marketing costs associated with the activities sales staff and allocations for advertising and sales promotion, we get expected gross profit. Its value shows how much money the company can get from this commodity market. The expected gross profit must exceed the overhead costs in order for the firm to earn a net profit. The content and structure of the marketing plan will be discussed in detail in Chap. ten.

Response Marketing and Offer Marketing

As shown in fig. 1.2, innovations, or ideas for new products, can come from two completely different sources: from the market and from the firm. If the idea of ​​a new product is born in the market and arises, for example, as a result of market research that has established unfulfilled (or poorly fulfilled) needs or desires, the innovation is called market-attracted. The results of the research are passed on to designers and developers who are looking for ways to fill the need. The role of operational marketing in this case is to promote the proposed new solution in target segment consumers.

Another source of innovation most characteristic of markets high-tech goods and industrial goods, there may be a laboratory or designers who, as a result of fundamental or applied research, discover or develop a new product, new service or new organizational system that can more successfully satisfy existing or latent needs. In such a situation, the role of strategic marketing is to verify the existence of a potentially profitable market segment, to assess its size and the success factors of the novelty, which in this case is called the innovation pushed by the company. The role of operational marketing can be more complex, since it is necessary to create a market for a product that is not demanded (at least not explicitly) and not expected by the market and which may require potential buyers to change consumer or user habits.

Thus, within the framework of strategic marketing, two different, but complementary approaches can be distinguished: response marketing and offer marketing.

• aim response marketing is identification of needs and desires and their satisfaction. The purpose of operational marketing is to develop latent or existing demand; innovation is attracted by the market.
• aim offer marketing is finding new ways to meet existing needs and desires. The goal is to create new markets through technology and/or creativity on the part of the organization. Innovations are pushed (offered) by the firm.

In developed countries, where most of the needs and desires of consumers are satisfied and most of the existing markets are in a state of stagnation, marketing of the offer, the creation of new market opportunities in the future, plays the role of "first violin". Akio Morita, CEO Sony, speaks about it like this:

We intend not to ask consumers what products they need, but to independently offer products that the public is drawn to. People don't know what's technically feasible and what's not, but we do. So instead of doing extensive market research, we focus on the product and its application. We are trying to create a market for it and for this we educate the public, carry out communication.

It can be concluded that the goal of strategic marketing is not only to (a) listen to consumers and respond to the needs they express, but also (b) to lead consumers in the direction they need, even if the “destination” is not yet realized by them. . The overall role of marketing in a company can be summarized as follows:

In a market economy, the role of marketing in a firm is to generate "profit" by developing and promoting "value-added solutions" to the "problems" of individuals and organizations.

The word "development" refers to strategic marketing, the word "promotion" - to operational marketing.

The role of marketing in a market economy

In a market economy, the function of marketing is to organize free and competitive exchange to ensure an effective match between the supply of goods and services and the demand for them. This coincidence does not arise by itself, but requires coordinated activities on two levels:

• organizations exchange, i.e., the physical flow of goods between producer and consumer;
• organizations communications, i.e., the flow of information, before, during, and after the exchange, in order to make the matching of supply and demand more efficient.

Accordingly, marketing in society is intended to promote organization of exchange and communication between sellers and buyers- these are the tasks and functions of marketing, regardless of the purpose of the exchange process. Marketing as such is applicable to both commercial and non-commercial commercial activities- in general, to any situation where there is a free exchange between the organization and users of the goods and services it offers.

Organization of the exchange

The distribution (distribution) process is responsible for organizing the exchange of goods and services, the task of which is to transfer products from the state of production to the state of consumption. This flow of production into a state of consumption creates three types of benefits that add value to the distribution process.

• State benefit. The totality of all material transformations of the transfer of goods into a state suitable for consumption: fragmentation, packaging, sorting, etc.
• Benefit of the place. Spatial transformations, such as transportation, geographic distribution, etc., that place the product at the disposal of users at places of use, transformation or consumption.
• The benefit of time. Temporal transformations, such as storage, make products available to users at the time they need.

It is thanks to these functions that the produced goods fall into the “field of vision” of target consumers, which creates favorable conditions to match supply and demand.

Historically, the above distribution tasks have been carried out by independent intermediaries such as distribution agents, wholesalers, retailers and distributors of manufactured goods - in other words, distribution sector. Some functions of the distribution process become objects of integration, for example, from the side of production (direct marketing), consumption ( consumer cooperatives) or distribution (supermarkets, chain stores, etc.).

Further, vertical marketing systems are emerging, bringing together independent firms that carry out different stages of the production and / or distribution process. This is done in order to coordinate the commercial activities of participants, save operating costs and, ultimately, increase market influence. Examples include voluntary networks, retail cooperatives and franchise organizations. In many sectors of the economy, vertical marketing systems are replacing traditional, overly fragmented distribution channels. They represent one of the most significant formations in the service sector, contributing to the intensification of competition between various forms of distribution and a significant increase in the productivity of distribution.

The value added of distribution is distribution margin, or the difference between the price paid to the manufacturer by the first purchaser and the price paid by the end user or consumer of the product. This may include the margin of one or more distributors, say wholesalers and retailers. In fact, the distribution margin is a payment to intermediaries for the functions they perform. According to some estimates, in the consumer goods sector, the exchange value, which includes all activities of distributors, is about 40% of the retail price. The cost of distribution is a significant part of the price of any product.

Organization of communication flows

The simultaneous occurrence of various conditions necessary for the implementation of the exchange is still not enough for demand and supply to really coincide. An exchange can only take place if the potential buyers are equally knowledgeable and informed about the existence of goods or about an abstract combination of attributes that can satisfy their needs. Communication activities are aimed at developing the knowledge of manufacturers, distributors and buyers. As shown in fig. 1.4, in a typical market, seven communication flows can be distinguished.

1. Before Investing Money the manufacturer collects information to determine the needs and desires of customers, which constitute a profitable opportunity for him, the manufacturer. As a rule, this is the prerogative of market research prior to an investment decision.
2. Similarly, a potential buyer (usually buyers of industrial goods) conducts a study of the proposals of suppliers and sends out invitations to participate in the tender (study of sources of supply).
3. After the start of production, the manufacturer begins a communication program aimed at distributors ( push strategy) for the purpose of familiarizing the latter with the product and gaining support in matters of retail space, promotion and price.
4. The manufacturer begins to collect information on all forms of brand advertising or direct sale aimed at making end-customers aware of the existence of the distinctive qualities of the brand ( pull strategy).
5. Distributors start promotion and information aimed at building loyalty to the store, attracting customers to the store, supporting their own brands, informing about the conditions of sale, etc.
6. After use or consumption of goods, an evaluation is carried out satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the form of a consumer survey. The evaluation is carried out by the supplier of the goods in order to adjust its offer in accordance with the reactions of buyers.
7. After using or consuming goods, buyers spontaneously, alone or in organized groups, present their requirements and give an assessment in the form of comparative tests (consumerism).

In small markets, communication between different sides of the exchange process occurs spontaneously. On the major markets the parties are significantly distant from each other physically and psychologically, so communication must be organized.

Marketing as a factor of democracy in business

Marketing, and in particular strategic marketing, plays an important role in a market economy, not only because it provides an effective match between supply and demand, but also because it initiates a “virtuous” circle of economic development (Fig. 1.5). This development process includes the following steps:

• Strategic marketing helps identify underserved or unmet market needs and stimulates the development of new or improved products.
• Operational marketing develops a dynamic marketing program to create and/or increase market demand for these new products.
• An increase in demand entails a reduction in costs, which allows prices to be lowered and thus contributes to the emergence of new groups of buyers on the market.
• The resulting market expansion requires new investment in manufacturing capacity, which creates economies of scale and stimulates further research and development to create new generations of products.

Strategic marketing promotes democracy in business because: (a) it begins with an analysis of consumer expectations; (b) investment and production decisions are made on the basis of perceived market needs; (c) takes into account the diversity of tastes and preferences in the form of market segmentation and the development of adapted products; and (d) stimulates innovation and entrepreneurship (Box 1.1).

As already emphasized, reality does not always coincide with theory. The philosophy of market orientation is increasingly accepted and implemented in Western firms.

Changing the Priority Role of Marketing

From the point of view of the organization of communication and exchange in a market economy, it is obvious that, despite all its popularity, marketing is not a new type of human activity, since the tasks with which it is associated have always existed and have always been carried out by one or another participant in a system that allows free exchange. . Even in autarky, which is based on the most primitive form of exchange - barter, there are flows of exchange and communication, only they arise spontaneously and do not require any special resources or organization in any form.

The complication of technological, economic and competitive environments prompted firms to create and then to strengthen the marketing function. In this regard, it will be interesting to trace this evolution in order to better understand the current role of marketing. Three stages can be distinguished in this evolution, each of which determines the priority goals of marketing: passive marketing, operational (or transactional marketing) and strategic (or active) marketing.

Passive Marketing: Product Orientation

Passive marketing is the form of organization that prevails in the economic environment, which is characterized by the existence of a potentially important market, but offer is limited: the existing production capacity is not enough to meet the needs of the market. Demand thus exceeds supply. Passive marketing also assumes that the needs are known and stable, and the speed technological innovation small in the underlying market.

This type economic situation was observed, for example, at the beginning of the 20th century, at the time industrial revolution and immediately after the end of World War II. This environment still prevails in many developing countries, especially in Eastern Europe.

Obviously, in conditions of insufficient supply, marketing plays a limited, passive role. Since the needs are known, strategic marketing is carried out "by itself", and operational marketing is reduced to organizing the flow of goods produced. Promotion is considered redundant, since the company is already unable to supply the market with its products in the required quantity. Contacts with the market are often limited to the "first echelon", that is, the first buyers of the goods. Most often they are intermediaries, wholesalers or industrial distributors. Contact with end users is limited and market research is rare. This conjuncture is also reflected in the organization of the firm, where the production function dominates, and the main priorities are increasing capacity and increasing productivity. Marketing in this case is necessary in order to sell what has been produced.

With the “commodity concept”, the structural organization of the firm as a whole has the form, as shown in Fig. 1.6.

• Functional balance violated in the sense that, on an org chart, marketing is not on the same level as other functions such as manufacturing, finance, and human resources, but below.
• The first level of marketing is presented commercial service, dealing with sales management and contacting the first buyers in the distribution chain, but not necessarily the end users.
• Decisions about the product are made by production managers, selling prices and sales forecasts are determined in the financial department. As a rule, there is power dispersion regarding the application marketing tools(four P's).

This type of organization contributes to the development commodity concept, based on the assumption, albeit implicitly expressed, that the firm knows what is good for the buyer, and the buyer shares this opinion. Moreover, the managers of such firms, as a rule, are convinced that they produce the best product, and expect that it will be in demand by buyers for an arbitrarily long time. This approach can be called "from the inside - inside": the focus is on internal constraints and prejudices, but not on the requirements and expectations of consumers. This point of view is typical of bureaucratic organizations and completely contradicts the idea that the buyer sees the product as a solution to his problem.

Such an approach is acceptable in a situation where demand exceeds supply, when buyers are ready to purchase any product that they can find. In reality, such market conditions are rather the exception, and if they occur, then for a short period of time. The danger of the product concept lies in the fact that with it the company becomes "myopic" in its worldview, nothing stimulates it to proactive behavior, that is, to prevent changes in the environment and prepare accordingly for them.

Passive marketing as a form of marketing organization is no longer applicable in the environments that most industrialized country firms face today. Nevertheless, in some firms, the product concept still exists - as a rule, these are industrial and financial (for example, insurance) companies. Lack of market orientation is the main cause of many bankruptcies. Similar mindsets are characteristic of Eastern European firms, which unexpectedly faced the free market, competition and all the ensuing difficulties.

So, the dominant business philosophy of a product-oriented company can be formulated as follows:

pledge successful business is the production of quality goods and services at affordable prices. Good products and services do not need advertising. To reduce costs, goods and services should be standardized wherever possible.

Until recently, the commodity concept also dominated developing countries, where it found adherents in the form of economic development experts. But even there, marketing can play an active role and contribute to the development of the economy.

Operational Marketing: Sales Focus

Operational marketing is dominated by sales orientation. In the countries of Western Europe, this approach to management was progressively introduced in consumer goods firms in the 1950s, when demand increased rapidly and the necessary production capacities were available. At the same time, despite the rapid growth of markets, distribution systems were in their infancy and not very efficient.

The reasons for the formation of a new approach to marketing management were the following changes in the economy:

• Appearance new forms of distribution, mainly self-service, contributed to the increase in the productivity of conventional distribution systems that are not adapted to the tasks of mass distribution.
• Geographic expansion of markets and the resulting physical and psychological divide between producers and consumers has necessitated the active use of means of communication such as advertising in the media.
• Appeared branding policies - necessary condition sales of goods in self-service stores and a way to control demand from end consumers.

At this stage, the marketing priority is to create an effective commercial organization. Marketing is beginning to play a more active role. Now his task is to discover and organize markets for the sale of manufactured goods. At this stage, most firms concentrate on the needs of the “core” of the market, offering products that satisfy the needs of the majority of buyers. As a result, the markets are poorly segmented, and strategic decisions regarding product policy remain the prerogative of the production department. Main function marketing consists in organizing the effective distribution of goods and in managing the solution of all problems that arise in the process of commercialization.

Concerning organizational structure, then these changes in priorities lead to the creation sales department, or commercial department, and also to the rearrangement of functions (Fig. 1.7). The sales department is entrusted with the creation of a sales network, the organization of physical distribution, advertising and sales promotion. He is also engaged in market research, the importance of which is becoming increasingly important. For example, a firm might investigate shopping habits, the effectiveness of advertising, the impact of branding and packaging, and so on.