The Industrial Revolution is a process of transition from agricultural economy, which is characterized by manual labor and handicraft production, to an industrial society with a predominance of machine production. The process begins in England in the 1740s-1780s and only then spreads to other European countries and the USA. The term itself appeared much later and became widely used only in the last decades of the 19th century.
Background of the industrial revolution
The XVIII century was characterized by a significant increase in the population of a number of European countries, including England. The significantly increased demand for food provoked an agricultural revolution in England: the restructuring of the land use system, changes in land cultivation technologies, the selection of seeds and livestock breeds, the emergence of specialization in certain regions of the country, and a number of other phenomena. The peasants who held land were replaced by tenants who used hired workers. All this made English agriculture not only much more productive, but also more profitable, and the money that appeared in the countryside, in turn, led to a massive demand for manufactured goods.
The dominant system of production at that time, based on manual labor, could not fully satisfy this demand. In addition, it began to be presented by new sections of society that did not have experience in the mass use of industrial goods - those for whom the products of artisans or manufactories turned out to be too expensive, were happy to buy cheaper, although often of lower quality factory products.
In addition, the agricultural revolution made it possible to solve another problem - where to get money for the construction of plants and factories, and often in those industries where there had previously been no industrial production didn't exist at all. Factories cost several times more than manufactories, and the capital accumulated in agriculture was put into industry.
Thus, by the middle of the 18th century, several factors came together in England at once: the wealth of natural resources, free capital, the desire and ability to invest in that sector of the economy that seemed more profitable, and the massive demand for industrial products, which also ensures the rise in prices for it. , and the market.
Other European countries will follow a similar path after England.
Stages of the Industrial Revolution in England
The question of the stages of the industrial revolution in England remains very debatable. The process dragged on for many decades and not only did not have at least a general plan, but often was not even realized by contemporaries, including the leading economists of that era. It was very uneven: along with radically changing industries, there were those in which nothing changed or changed much more slowly. In this regard, a number of historians raise the question of whether it is correct in principle to use the term "revolution". Inventions often did not follow the needs of a particular industry, but anticipated their needs and remained unclaimed for years. The state did not lead this process - in historiography, the point of view is sometimes expressed that the British government, in the midst of the industrial revolution, is almost turning its back on the economy. All this does not allow us to single out any generally accepted stages of this process.
Looking from the 21st century, one can say, at the risk of hearing a lot of reasonable objections, that until about the 1760s, the foundation was laid on which the industrial revolution would subsequently grow. Following the creation of the Bank of England in 1694, a system of small local banks (country banks) began to develop in the country, providing a freer circulation of funds. The interest rate on loans is decreasing: if during the wars of William III it was about 7–8%, then by the middle of the 18th century it was 3%. A transport revolution begins: the technology for creating canals is being improved, from the 1740s they begin to be built based on the needs of a growing industry, and toll roads are being actively created. The extraction and transportation of coal, which became the main fuel of the industrial revolution, is developing.
// Distaff "Jenny" by James Hargreaves. Illustration from "History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain" by Edward Bans, 1835 (Wikimedia Commons)
Inventions in these years are relatively rare. Among the most striking are, for example, John Kay's aircraft shuttle (1733), which, however, became widespread much later. Basically, it was a time when England borrowed what appeared in other countries, and often several centuries before technology crossed the Pas de Calais.
Since about the beginning of the 1760s, the situation has changed significantly. "England in the second half of the 18th century already belongs to the future," wrote Pierre Shon. A series of inventions that glorified England begins, which we most often associate with the industrial revolution. James Hargreaves' "Jenny" spinning wheel (1764), the spinning machines of Richard Arkwright (c. 1769) and Samuel Crompton (c. 1779), and the loom of Edmund Cartwright (border 1780-1790s) led to dramatic changes in the manufacture of fabrics. The puddling process discovered by Henry Cort (patented in 1784) made it possible to make iron smelting cheaper and more efficient.
The steam engine appeared in Europe at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries.
In 1708, the Englishman Thomas Newcomen adapted it for a steam pump, but James Watt's experiments with steam began around 1765, and the commercial use of his engine began in 1783, when he proposed a universal engine that could already be installed in factories and factories. Since the late 1770s, wooden rails in mines and mines have been replaced with cast iron ones, from here it is already a stone's throw from construction railways. In the 1780s, the first steamboats appeared. At the same time, there is a sharp jump in the number of received patents for inventions.
AT new stage The Industrial Revolution enters with the beginning of the 19th century. Significantly growing role foreign trade: it is already a source of funds for British industry and provides it with an unlimited (or, if you like, cross-border) expansion of the market. Watt's engine conquers England and begins its victorious march across Europe. The transport revolution comes to an end: around 1820, a new road surface developed by John McAdam is being introduced, in 1829 the first passenger railway between Manchester and Liverpool is being built, and shortly before that, the first lines for the transport of goods. Finally, the role of science becomes visible - before that, for the most part, there was an era of engineers and inventors, who often did not have any special education.
The course of the industrial revolution in different countries
During the Industrial Revolution and over the next few decades, England's share of world industrial production increased more than 10 times. It is not surprising that other countries also sought to follow its example, especially since the starting conditions often turned out to be more favorable for them: the state was clearly aware of the need for economic restructuring and actively contributed to it; it became possible to import technologies, personnel and capital from more developed countries; it was approximately clear which industries and in what sequence to develop. First of all, the industrial revolution extends to those countries where, as in England, a higher intensity of labor compared to the rest of the world could become its basis - it is no coincidence that one of the historians will call the industrial revolution "industrious revolution".
The course of the Industrial Revolution had many common features in different countries. As a rule, it was preceded by a significant population growth, it was often accompanied by an influx of money into the agrarian sector of the economy and its radical restructuring, the problem of finding capital and energy sources was somehow solved. Everywhere the development of industry was accompanied by the construction of new means of communication, including railways - in the 1820-1830s they appear in France, Belgium, Germany, the USA, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Russian Empire. Toll roads appear in many countries, steamboats begin to sail along the rivers.
Wallonia was the first to follow the example of England, which made Belgium one of the largest industrial powers in the world, it was part of the group of world leaders until the last quarter of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, the industrial revolution comes to the United States, much later, in the 1830s-1860s, it takes place in France. There, it was carried out with the support of the textile and metallurgical industries, and the state made a significant contribution to the construction of transport infrastructure. Even later, around the middle of the 19th century, the German states enter the industrial revolution, but by the end of the century, a united Germany is among the leaders.
The inventions made in these countries also quickly became known throughout Europe and overseas, they can be listed endlessly, often we don’t even realize that one or another absolutely familiar thing today appeared precisely during the years of the industrial revolution. In 1807, Robert Fulton creates the famous paddle steamer. In the mid-1830s, based on the inventions of his predecessors, Samuel Colt developed his own revolver. Samuel Morse's invention made it possible in 1844 to build the first telegraph line in the United States using his alphabet. Barthélemy Timonnier creates the first commercially successful sewing machine(1829), Louis Dagger invents the first camera (1839), Joel Huton the dishwasher (1850), James King the washing machine (1851), Adolf Fick makes the first successful contact lenses (1888).
Industrial revolutions in developed countries certainly had many features.
Thus, in Belgium, the revolution relied primarily on iron ore and coal, as well as on a long tradition of textile production and had many similarities with the English model.
In France, it is often assumed that the dynamics of the development of industry in this country turned out to be non-linear: after an initial take-off from the 1860s until the end of the century, a noticeable slowdown is recorded, which was overcome only with the onset of the 20th century. When describing the processes that took place in Germany, a later start is usually explained by the fragmentation of the country, but at the same time it is noted that Germany was rich natural resources, had capital and had such an education system that made it possible to quickly and practically from scratch prepare a lot of qualified personnel and achieve excellence in new industries: electrical and especially chemical. In the United States, historians note that, on the one hand, the industrial revolution took place based on overseas technologies and capital, and on the other hand, it initially affected only a relatively small part of the country's territory - the northeast, in particular New England.
Consequences of the industrial revolution
If viewed from today, the consequences of the industrial revolution can hardly be overestimated. In fact, it is from it that the entire modern technological civilization grows; its values and principles spread from Great Britain, first to Europe and North America, and then gradually conquer the whole world. The agrarian civilization is becoming a thing of the past, it is being replaced by an industrial one. This can be seen not only through dry figures showing a change in the percentage of the population employed in agriculture or industry, or the number of city dwellers - the whole daily life of people is changing: food eventually begins to be produced in factories, clothes and shoes basically cease to be sewn on individual orders, standard and interchangeable parts appear, metal replaces wood in the construction of bridges and ships, the globe becomes so small that it can be circumnavigated in eighty days. It is difficult to find an area of life that has not been affected by the industrial revolution.
It also affected the very structure of society: the importance of the peasantry is declining, the role of the landed aristocracy is decreasing, many artisans and crafts are disappearing, manufactories are closing. The world with which Marx was fascinated, the coexistence (or opposition) of the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat, on which he built his theories, is also a consequence of the industrial revolution. There is a trade union movement, socialist and workers' organizations - thus, the basis of many social upheavals of the 19th and early 20th centuries is also the industrial revolution.
Historians have been seeing the middle class in a number of European countries since almost the 17th century, but it was after the industrial revolution that one can speak of it as a separate social stratum with its own ethics and philosophy of life. In many ways, this middle class was created by the industrial revolution: these are the owners of small factories, managers, new professional layers, such as, for example, engineers.
Working conditions are changing: the interdependence of people within the same team makes it necessary to impose strict discipline, put some workers under the supervision of others, prohibit being distracted from work or being late for it.
The family still retains its economic importance, but it is increasingly no longer a place of work. Falling down economic role women in the family, a new division of labor appears: the man works, the woman runs the house and looks after the children. So home and work working time and leisure hours are clearly separated. At the turn of the 1770s and 1780s, the first kindergartens were opened in Europe, and in the 19th century, a nursery.
In fact, there have been only two revolutions of this magnitude in world history: the first turned the hunter-gatherer into a farmer, the second turned the farmer into a producer of goods and services.
1. What changes took place in industrial production in the 19th century? What role did new industries play in the development of industry?
Since the Middle Ages, textiles have played a leading role in production. It was because of the supply of wool for textile production that the process of fencing took place, manufactories developed most actively in this industry, it was there that new industrial inventions mainly appeared throughout the 18th century. However, in the 19th century, the emphasis gradually began to shift to heavy industry. Textiles provide only one human need, while iron and steel are needed to satisfy many needs in a rapidly developing industry and in transport. Therefore, it was heavy industry that quickly began to occupy a leading position.
2. Fill in the table.
Tech revolution
3. Draw a conclusion about how society has changed as a result of the introduction of technological advances. Specify the features of the industrial development of certain regions of Europe. Name the countries that have become leaders in industrial development.
As a result of the introduction of technical innovations, all aspects of society have changed. Another was the daily life of people, their labor activity. We must also not forget about the process of urbanization. In the 19th century, the population of Europe becomes predominantly urban, which means a very different everyday culture. At the same time, not all countries followed the path of industrialization at the same speed. England was ahead of everyone in this respect - by the middle of the 19th century, half of its population lived in cities. Somewhat lagged behind England, but France quickly made up for lost time, Prussia and Austria caught up with them. At the same time, the same Italy (still divided in the first half of the 19th century) remained little affected by industrialization. However, such countries still could not live in the old way, because industrial goods penetrated all over Europe and around the world, changing it.
4. What contradictions in society deepened the industrial era? What were the social consequences of the second industrial revolution?
In countries where bourgeois revolutions took place, the contradictions between privileged and non-privileged classes were no longer relevant. For example, in the UK, they no longer existed. However, the industrial revolution exacerbated the equally ancient tensions between the haves and have-nots, in this case- the relationship between wage workers (proletarians) and their employers. One of the main social consequences of the industrial revolution was the creation and strengthening of the working class, which in developed countries gradually became one of the main groups in society.
5. Describe the position of the working class in industrial countries.
The working class had no other means of subsistence, except for the sale of its own labor, because of this, it was completely dependent on market conditions: during crises, unemployment rose, wages fell, and working conditions fell. At the same time, even between crises, the position of the workers cannot be called enviable, because in the beginning there were no legislative norms that could restrict their exploitation, and they themselves were forced to agree to any conditions, since they could not earn a living in another way. At the same time, the workers were initially inclined to a collective struggle for rights. In the production itself, they worked in large teams, in addition, they constantly saw the commonality of their lifestyle and their needs.
The Great Industrial Revolution, the achievements and problems of which will be discussed in the article, began in England (mid-18th century) and gradually embraced the entire world civilization. It led to the mechanization of production, the growth of the economy and the creation of a modern industrial society. The topic is covered in the eighth grade history course and will be useful to both students and parents.
Basic concept
A detailed definition of the concept can be seen in the picture above. It was first used by French economist Adolphe Blanqui in 1830. The theory was developed by the Marxists and Arnold Toynbee (English historian). The industrial revolution is not an evolutionary process associated with the emergence of new machines on the basis of scientific and technical discoveries (some already existed at the beginning of the 18th century), but a massive transition to a new organization of labor - machine production in large factories that replaced the manual labor of manufactories.
There are other definitions of this phenomenon in the books, including the industrial revolution. It is applicable to initial stage revolution, during which they are distinguished by three:
- Industrial revolution: the emergence of a new industry - mechanical engineering and the creation of a steam engine (from the middle of the 18th century to the first half of XIX century).
- Organization mass production due to the use of chemicals and electricity (from the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century). The stage was first identified by David Landis.
- Use in the production of information and communication technologies (from the end of the 20th century to the present). There is no consensus in science about the third stage.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution): basic prerequisites
For the organization of factory production, a number of conditions are necessary, the main of which are:
- Availability work force- dispossessed people.
- The possibility of selling goods (sales markets).
- The existence of rich people with money savings.
These conditions were formed first of all in England, where the bourgeoisie came to power after the revolution of the 17th century. The seizure of land from the peasants and the ruin of the artisans in fierce competition with the manufactories created a huge army of destitute people in need of work. The migration of former farmers to the cities led to a weakening of subsistence farming. If the villagers themselves produced clothes and utensils for themselves, then the townspeople were forced to buy them. Goods were also exported abroad, as sheep breeding was well developed in the country. In the hands of the bourgeoisie profits accumulated from the slave trade, the robbery of the colonies and the export of wealth from India. Industrial Revolution (transition from manual labor to the machine) became a reality thanks to a number of serious inventions.
Spinning production
The industrial revolution first affected the cotton industry, the most developed in the country. The stages of its mechanization can be seen in the presented table.
Edmund Cartwright improved the loom (1785), because the weavers could no longer process as much yarn as they produced in the factories of England. A 40-fold increase in productivity is the best proof that the industrial revolution has arrived. Achievements and problems (table) will be presented in the article. They are associated with the need to invent a special propulsion force that does not depend on the proximity of water.
steam engine
The search for a new source of energy was important not only in but also in the mining industry, where the work was especially hard. Already in 1711, an attempt was made to create a steam pump with a piston and a cylinder, into which water was injected. This was the first serious attempt to use steam. The author of an improved steam engine in 1763 was In 1784, the first double-acting steam engine used in a spinning mill was patented. The introduction of patents made it possible to protect the copyright of inventors, which contributed to their motivation for new achievements. Without this step, the industrial revolution would hardly have been possible.
Achievements and challenges (table shown in the picture below) show that the steam engine contributed to the industrial revolution in the development of transport. The appearance of the first steam locomotives on smooth rails is associated with the name of George Stephenson (1814), who personally operated a 33-car train in 1825 on the first railway for citizens in history. Its 30 km route connected Stockton and Darlington. By the middle of the century, all of England was surrounded by a network of railways. A little earlier, an American working in France tested the first steamboat (1803).
Advances in mechanical engineering
In the table above, one should highlight the achievement without which the industrial revolution would have been impossible - the transition from manufactory to factory. This invention lathe for cutting nuts and screws. Henry Maudsley, a mechanic from England, made a breakthrough in the development of industry, in fact creating a new industry - mechanical engineering (1798-1800). In order to provide machine tools for factory workers, machines must be created to produce other machines. Soon appeared planer and milling machines(1817, 1818). Mechanical engineering contributed to the development of metallurgy and the extraction of coal, which allowed England to flood other countries with cheap manufactured goods. For this she received the name "workshop of the world."
Collective work with the development of machine tool industry has become a necessity. A new type of worker has emerged - one who performs only one operation and is not able to produce the finished product from start to finish. There was a separation of intellectual forces from physical labor which led to the emergence of qualified professionals who formed the basis of the middle class. The industrial revolution is not only a technical aspect, but also serious social consequences.
Social Consequences
The main result of the industrial revolution is the creation of an industrial society. It is characterized by:
- Personal freedom of citizens.
- Market relations.
- Technical modernization.
- The new structure of society (the predominance of urban residents, class stratification).
- Competition.
New technical capabilities(transport, communications), which improved the quality of life of people. But in the pursuit of profit, the bourgeoisie was looking for ways to reduce the cost of labor, which led to the widespread use of the labor of women and children. Society split into two opposing classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
The ruined peasants and artisans could not get a job due to a lack of jobs. They considered the machines that replaced their labor to be the culprits, so the movement against machine tools gained momentum. The workers smashed the equipment of the factories, which marked the beginning of the class struggle against the exploiters. The growth of banks and the increase in capital imported into England at the beginning of the 19th century led to the low solvency of other countries, which caused a crisis of overproduction in 1825. These are the consequences of the industrial revolution.
Achievements and challenges (table): results of the industrial revolution
The table about industrial revolutions (achievements and problems) will be incomplete without taking into account the foreign policy aspect. For most of the 19th century, England's economic dominance was undeniable. It dominated the global trading market, which was rapidly developing. At the first stage, only France competed with it thanks to the targeted policy of Napoleon Bonaparte. The uneven economic development of countries can be seen in the picture below.
The second stage of the revolution: the emergence of monopolies
The technical achievements of the second stage are presented above (see picture No. 4). Chief among them: the invention of new means of communication (telephone, radio, telegraph), the internal combustion engine and the furnace for steel smelting. The emergence of new energy sources is associated with the discovery of oil fields. This made it possible for the first time to create a car on a gasoline engine (1885). Chemistry came to the service of man, thanks to which strong synthetic materials began to be created.
For new industries (for the development of oil fields, for example), significant capital was required. The process of their concentration has intensified through the merger of companies, as well as their merging with banks, whose role has increased significantly. Monopolies appear - powerful enterprises that control both production and marketing of products. They were created by the industrial revolutions. Achievements and problems (table will be presented below) are associated with the consequences of the emergence of monopoly capitalism. are shown in the picture.
Consequences of the second stage of the industrial revolution
The uneven development of countries and the emergence of large corporations led to wars for the redivision of the world, the capture of markets and new sources of raw materials. During the period from 1870 to 1955 there were twenty serious military conflicts. involved in two world wars great amount countries. The creation of international monopolies led to the economic division of the world under the dominance of the financial oligarchy. Instead of exporting goods, large corporations began to export capital, creating production in countries with cheap labor. Within countries, monopolies dominate, ruining and absorbing smaller enterprises.
But the industrial revolutions also bring a lot of positive things. Achievements and problems (the table is presented in the last subheading) of the second stage is mastering the results of scientific and technical discoveries, creating a developed infrastructure of society, and adapting to new living conditions. Monopoly capitalism is the most developed form of the capitalist mode of production, in which all the contradictions and problems of the bourgeois system are most fully manifested.
Results of the second stage
Industrial Revolution: Achievements and Challenges (table)
| Achievements | Problems | |
| Technical aspect |
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| Social aspect |
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The industrial revolution, the achievements and problems of which are presented in two tables (according to the results of the first and second stages), is the greatest achievement of civilization. The transition to factory production was accompanied by technological progress. However, the risk of military and environmental disasters requires that the development of modern technologies and the use of new energy sources be under the control of humanistic public institutions.
The beginning of the industrial revolution.
Technical advances. At the end of the XVIII century. in the industry of a number of European countries, a transition began from the manufacturing stage with its manual technique to the factory production system. This transition is called the industrial revolution, which has important consequences.
The Industrial Revolution began in England in the last third of the 18th century. The needs of the development of manufactories contributed to a number of inventions in the field of mechanics. In 1733, for example, the “flying shuttle” was invented for dressing cloth, which greatly accelerated the production of fabrics. This invention stimulated the work of spinners: soon a machine was created that spun thread without human intervention. A few years later, J. Hargreaves invented the famous Jenny spinning wheel, and a few years later the first spinning mill appeared in England, where the machines worked with the help of a water wheel.
In other industries, too, at this time there were significant changes. In 1765, James Watt built a steam engine and improved it six years later. The invention of the steam engine eventually led to the spread of the factory.
For the operation of machines, coal was needed, so its production began to develop intensively. The need for metal increased, which led to the improvement of metallurgy. Intense competition of entrepreneurs in the XIX century. demanded from the owners of enterprises the constant introduction of the latest achievements of science in production. The accumulated knowledge made it possible to obtain coke from coal and with its help to drastically reduce costs in the production of pig iron.
Back in 1722, the French naturalist A. Reaumur discovered the secret of steel production. Reaumur's recipes became feasible after, in 1856, the Englishman G. Bessemer found a way to blow air through hot iron in order to burn out excess oxygen from it and turn it into steel. Almost simultaneously, the brothers E. and P. Marten created a special furnace for the restoration of cast iron, named after them.
In 1825, J. Stephenson led the passenger train. The length of the railways grew very quickly. In 1830, a 100-kilometer rail track linked Manchester with Liverpool. And by 1850, England was covered with a network of railways with a total length of 50 thousand km. Railway fever contributed to the rapid development of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, steam locomotive and car building.
The birth of an industrial society.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in England, later spread to other European countries, the United States. The Industrial Revolution created the conditions that gave birth to the industrial society. A worldview was also born, which became the ideological basis of industrial society.
An industrial society should be based on the ideas of freedom, equality and independence: entrepreneurs did not depend on the power of the state, buyers and sellers were equal, each member of society should be free in their actions.
The most rapid development of industrial society was in England. Here in the second half of the seventeenth century. freedom of trade was established. Were taking shape the necessary conditions for the rule of free competition. The development of free competition in England was facilitated by the absence of internal customs duties.
The formation of a layer of hired workers and the creation domestic market(i.e., people who needed to buy industrial products) were combined in England with a turbulent process of the so-called primitive accumulation of capital. Capital is money that generates income. In the XVII - XVIII centuries. cash accumulated in England in such numbers that a whole stratum of wealthy people formed who were looking for profitable premises for their capital.
There is also an industrial proletariat - people working in factories. Their work was very difficult then. The working day lasted up to 18 hours a day, the salary was low. The invention of new machines led to mass layoffs which angered the workers. This was expressed in the periodic breakdown of machines and tools (Luddism). Under the law, damage to cars was punishable by death.
The end of the Industrial Revolution in England.
In the first half of the XIX century. The industrial revolution in England was completed. It was in this country that he acquired the most mature, classical forms of his development. England became in the 19th century. into the "workshop of the world" and remained so almost until the end of the century.
Light industry was the most receptive to new trends. This is due to the fact that only products necessary for the average consumer, clothing, footwear, fabrics, can give a quick profit. The machines and machines that manufacturers need do not bring profit until after some time.
The economic development of England and France in the first half of the XIX century.
Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Only the fear of an invasion from France, which united the nation, helped to withstand the terrible tension of the war. The continental blockade imposed by Napoleon sharply raised food prices, which gave rise to "hunger riots".
The victory over Napoleon in 1815 ended the continental blockade, but it created new problems. Up to half a million people were dismissed from the army and navy. The government has reduced its orders. Cheap European grain began to arrive in England. The fall in prices gave rise to a panic that engulfed not only farmers, but also the aristocracy - the landlords. The income tax, which fell mainly on the rich, was reduced and then completely abolished, and indirect taxes, which were a burden on the bulk of the population, were raised. In 1815, the "bread laws" were adopted, in fact, the import of bread into the country was prohibited. As a result, the price of bread skyrocketed. Potatoes and turnips became the main food of working families for a long time.
Despite significant difficulties, the accelerated development of industry and agriculture in England continued.
The economic development of another leading Western European country - France in the first half of the XIX century. also progressed well. In the first decade of the XIX century. French industry grew by more than 50%. The development of the economy was facilitated by the influx of money and valuables from the conquered countries, protectionist policies and lucrative foreign trade deals. However, Napoleon's wars themselves contributed to undermining the economy. The defeat in the fight against the anti-French coalition dealt a serious blow to the French economy, from which, however, she managed to recover fairly quickly. During the reign of the Bourbons in industry, manual labor continued to be replaced by machine labor. The number of factories and factories grew.
In economic terms, in the 30s - 40s. 19th century France was the most developed (after England) country in Europe. By the end of the first half of the XIX century. the factory type of production was the leader in ferrous metallurgy and was intensively introduced into mechanical engineering. From 1825 to 1847 the volume of industrial production increased by 2/3. New industries developed rapidly, especially the chemical industry.
Features of economic development in the second half of the XIX century.
In the second half of the XIX century. the economy of the advanced countries of Europe is again undergoing changes. They influenced the life of society and the political development of these countries and the whole world.
These changes are associated with the emergence of monopolies. Monopolies are large business associations that are privately owned, which can be individual, group, joint-stock, and exercise control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital in order to set higher prices and extract higher profits.
The emergence of monopolies was caused by progress in technology, the complication production process. It required more and more capital, as machines and raw materials became more and more expensive. Therefore, entrepreneurs began to unite.
Economic crises contributed to the acceleration of this association. The introduction of new technology led to a reduction in workers, as a result they stopped buying manufactured goods. This is how the crisis of overproduction arose. The first such crisis occurred in England as early as 1825. In 1858, the first world economic crisis began. During crises, many enterprises were closed, entrepreneurs went bankrupt. It was easier for the association of entrepreneurs to overcome the consequences of the crises.
The most important aspect of the development of monopolies was the new role of banks and other financial institutions in economics. The growth in the concentration of production and capital forced industrial companies to look for strong ties with banks in order to obtain long-term loans, open credit in case of changes in economic situation. Banks are turning from intermediaries into all-powerful monopolists. In the second half of the XIX century. the process of merging of production and capital accelerated. There were monopolies of the following types: syndicate, trust, cartel, concern.
A cartel is an association of independent enterprises based on a temporary agreement with the aim of establishing control over the market for a certain product, raising prices for this product and ensuring monopoly high profits. The higher the concentration of production and capital in a particular industry, the smaller the number of enterprises dominating it in connection with this, the greater the possibilities for collusion between them to control the market. At a certain stage of concentration, such collusion becomes a necessity.
The cartel may provide for the establishment of mandatory minimum prices for goods for all participants, the delimitation of sales areas, the determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it.
A syndicate is an association of independent enterprises of any industry, based on an agreement on the joint sale of goods. The syndicate is created with the aim of ensuring monopoly dominance in the market, setting monopoly prices and obtaining the highest profit. The members of the syndicate are individual enterprises, and entire trusts and concerns that use the syndicate to subordinate small enterprises to their control and expand their influence in domestic and foreign markets.
A trust is a form of association in which the merging enterprises lose their independence and are subject to unified management. The owners of enterprises included in the trust are deprived of the right to dispose of them directly.
Concerns - associations were the highest form of monopolies; enterprises, banks, trading firms on the basis of general financial dependence on a certain group of capitalists.
Often, formally independent concerns were united into financial groups through a system of participation in financial dependence on the parent company - the "financial house" (Morgans, Rockefellers in the USA).
After the world economic crisis of 1873, the process of development of cartels began, which, however, quickly disintegrated. By the end of the 19th century, cartels were one of the foundations of the European economy. By the beginning of the twentieth century. the number of concerns and trusts in the United States increased from 185 to 250. A new phenomenon was the emergence of international cartels in mining, chemical, metallurgical, electrical and other industries.
The role of the state in the economy.
In the first half of the XIX century. State intervention in the economy has been drastically reduced. bankers, owners industrial enterprises strongly advocated freedom of enterprise. In their opinion, the role of the state should have been limited only to the protection general conditions favorable to the development of the economic life of the country (means of communication, means of communication, maintaining the stability of monetary circulation), and the protection of their external interests.
However, in the second half of the XIX century. the role of the state in managing the colonies increases, and wars (for example, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871) help the victorious country to receive huge military indemnities. State intervention in economic life also included the introduction of factory and state legislation for workers' insurance.
old state enterprises are still preserved, primarily in the military field, but are already losing their former significance. State lands, subsoil, forests are gradually passing into private hands. Only transport and roads, which are of an important strategic nature, remain in the possession of the state.
The strongest influence of the state on the economy was in Germany. Here the nationalization of the railways took place, a tobacco monopoly was introduced.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were merging with the state apparatus. State officials headed the monopoly associations. In some cases, monopolies are endowed with functions state power. Often state and private monopolies were intertwined.
Changes in the economy of the largest countries.
France finally turned into a country of monopoly capital in the early twentieth century. During these years, there was a rapid increase in the concentration of production, an increase in monopolies and their strengthening.
In 1897, an economic upsurge began in the country, which covered all branches of industrial production, especially metallurgical. The economic recovery was accompanied by an increase in foreign trade, increased imports of raw materials and machinery, an increase in the internal movement of goods, an increase in railway revenues and an increase in the value of French bank bills.
By the end of the XIX century. The United States and Germany come out on top in terms of industrial growth rates.
The development of production required the protection of the rights of workers, whose hands created the national wealth of states. This was done first in Germany, where state insurance for workers was introduced.
In England, trade unions (trade unions) were also legalized, giving them the status of a legal entity and judicial protection of their funds. The work of children under 10 years of age in production was prohibited. In 1891, a law on free primary education was passed.
The importance of trade unions was especially great in the USA, where the labor movement assumed a wide scope. American trade unions (ORT and AFL) led the movement of workers for their rights. This struggle took the form of strikes, mass demonstrations, often accompanied by clashes with the police. The main demand of the workers was to increase wages, the introduction of an 8-hour working day, labor protection in production.
The end of the 18th century went down in history under the banner of the industrial revolution. First, England, and then other European countries, gradually abandoned the usual use of manual labor, that is, manufactory production. The first looms, steam engines and other inventions appear. The era of the industrial revolution begins, the transition from manufactories to factories and plants.
Preview
In the second swarm in the eighteenth century. in England pro-is-ho-dit ag-rar-naya re-vo-lu-tion. Pre-pri-ni-ma-tel-skoe farm-mer-farming economy you-tes-nya-et tra-di-tsi-on-noe peasant. This was due to the fact that practically all the land was in the hands of large prop-owners, some of them rented -wa-whether it is in rent-du fer-me-ram. Warehouse-dy-va-las si-ste-ma ka-pi-ta-li-sti-che-sky from-no-she-ny between land-lor-da-mi (vla-del-tsa-mi of the land) , fer-me-ra-mi-aren-da-to-ra-mi and on-em-us-mi ra-bot-ni-ka-mi (ba-tra-ka-mi). This leads to an improvement in the quality of the land, the development of abandoned plots of land, in a way my culture tour (for livestock). After the ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-tion, many people in the village were left without work and means of subsistence. They went to the city, where they became-but-went-on-it-us-mi-ra-bot-no-ka-mi on industrial mouse-len-nyh pre-pri-i-ti-yah .
Pre-syllabus pro-mice-len-noy re-in-lu-tion
. Skop-le-nie ka-pi-ta-la in the hands of pre-pri-ni-ma-te-lei, merchants and banks-ki-ditch.
. The growth in the number of hired workers (the increase in the number of workers, in particular, was due to the ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-qi-ey).
. The development of trade-whether and the growth of cities.
. Is there a sales market in co-lo-no-yah.
The immediate cause of the chi-noy on-cha-la pro-mouse-len-noy re-in-lu-tion was the ra-zo-re-ing of English weavers in connection with importation to England de-she-th fabrics from India. In order to save their production of water and con-ku-ri-ro-vat with under-ro-gi-mi in-di-ski-mi fabrics-nya-mi, they needed -di-mo increase the pro-of-di-tel-ness of labor and reduce-sew for-expenditure. (cm. )
Developments
1733- John Kay invented a me-ha-ni-che-sky (sa-mo-year-old) weaving machine.
1735 G.- Ab-ra-ham Der-bi-son introduced-ril to-men-nuyu you-smelting chu-gu-na on coke.
1784- invent-re-ten to-kar-ny machine Henry Mauds-lee.
Rice. 2. James Hargreaves ()
Rice. 3. Distaff "Jenny" James Hargreaves ()
Rice. 4. James Watt ()
Rice. 5. Steam engine James Watt ()
At the end of the 18th century there appeared lathes(Fig. 6). The new technology has led to new organization industry. Manufactories are becoming a thing of the past, and they are being replaced by factories and factories. It became real revolution in industry which made it possible to significantly increase the growth of productive forces. The emergence of factories changed the lives of workers. For the first time in human history working day schedule. From Monday to Saturday, a harsh 12-hour working day was established. It was very bad for a family of workers. They used to be able to earn extra days off and extra money with their special talents and extra effort. The workers lived in very difficult conditions. New factory towns were built next to the coal mines (Figure 7). In them, workers could rent only one or two rooms. The manufacturers, taking advantage of their position, squeezed everything they could out of their subordinates. They fined workers for swearing, untidiness, being late, used cheap child labor, and refused to pay for medical care. All this led to the growth of discontent among the workers. The first signs of such discontent were expressed in Luddite movement(Fig. 8). The members of this movement called themselves Luddites, after the legendary worker Neda Ludd(Fig. 9), who, according to legend, was the first to destroy his own machine. Following him, hundreds of people throughout England began to deliberately spoil the hated cars. The English manufacturers were very unhappy with this. The government soon passed a law making the death penalty for damage to the machine.)
Following England, the introduction of machine tools into production came to other countries. The demand for various inventors and their inventions has increased. More and more technical innovations appeared in Europe. Not only the quantity, but also the quality of manufactured products grew. Their prices have gradually come down.
Summing up, it is worth noting that the industrial revolution in Europe had a number of positive factors:
- Sanitation.
- Improving medical care.
- Improving the quality of goods.
- Improving the nutrition of the population.
It is worth noting that all these factors did not appear immediately, it took years for Europe to be on the threshold of a qualitatively new period in its history.
Bibliography
1. Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.
2. Dmitry Travin. Otar Margania. European modernization
3. Erofeev N.A. Industrial Revolution in England. - M., 1963
4. Potemkin F.V. Industrial Revolution in France. T. 1. From manufactory to factory. - M.: Nauka, 1971.
5. E. Hobsbaum. Age of revolution. Europe 1789-1848. - Rostov: Publishing house "Phoenix", 1999.
6. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. History of the New Age. 1500-1800. - M.: "Enlightenment", 2012.
Homework
1. How do you understand the terms "agrarian revolution" and "industrial revolution"? When and in what country did they first occur?
2. What caused the industrial revolution?
3. Tell us about the consequences of the industrial revolution in England.
4. What famous inventions can you name? List the outstanding inventors of that time.