Recently, more and more changes have been made to the legal framework governing the pharmaceutical activities of enterprises and holdings. All of them are mainly aimed at suppressing the sale of counterfeit products and strengthening control by supervisory authorities. The legislator makes every effort to level Negative consequences taking place on the pharmaceutical market and ensure the maximum availability of drugs.
One of the latest leading trends in Russian legislation is the process of uniting domestic norms with the provisions of the Eurasian Economic Union. The parties to contractual obligations strive to achieve the approval of uniform standards in various areas, including in the field of circulation medicines. This requires large agreements with the participants of the Agreement and considerable material investments. However, the gradual unification legal provisions in accordance with the agreement, the EAEU allows to improve the export of pharmaceutical products.
The concept of drug circulation
Based on the Federal Law-61, pharmaceutical preparations are understood as substances or a combination of them, which, upon contact with the body, react and have a corresponding effect. Pharmaceuticals are used for preventive purposes, to combat the pathogenic environment and as a rehabilitation. In accordance with the law, the circulation of medicines in the Russian Federation is understood as a set of measures that includes the study, analysis, production of new drugs, as well as the transportation and sale of pharmaceutical products. Recently, the pharmaceutical market of the Russian Federation has seen a high share of product innovation and tighter control by supervisory authorities.
What will change in the field of drug circulation
In 2020, the legislator plans to amend the procedure for the circulation of medicines in the Russian Federation. All market participants will be required to monitor medicinal products and label them. Manufacturing concerns will need to apply identification means and enter relevant information into single system. And wholesale and retail pharmaceutical enterprises, when accepting and selling, will need to enter information into the GIS "Marking" system.
The future transformations envisioned have their benefits for the pharmaceutical business. First, the introduction of the new system will minimize costs due to more effective management logistics. Secondly, compliance of products with approved standards will allow organizing deliveries to overseas markets. Thirdly, it will help achieve healthy competition and minimize the amount of counterfeit sales.
At various stages of the turnover of pharmaceutical products, a fairly large circle of participants is involved: manufacturing concerns, wholesale and retail companies, distributors, pharmacy chains. All their actions are governed by the current provisions of the law and the approved legal framework of the enterprise itself. In addition, all organizations are required to act in accordance with the approved EAEU Agreement in the field of marketing of pharmaceuticals.
Subjects of Medicines Circulation
In accordance with the provisions of the well-known 61 federal laws, pharmaceutical market participants are citizens, legal departments and businessmen who work in this area. Based recent changes, the head of the subject of drug circulation is obliged to take care of the implementation of measures in the field of acceptance, sale, storage of records and reporting documentation.
Main actors
- LP manufacturers. Holdings engaged in the production of pharmaceutical products in accordance with the approved requirements of the regulator of the law.
- wholesale companies. Pharmaceutical organizations, which are engaged in the marketing and transportation of drugs.
- Medical enterprises. Hospital facilities that receive and sell pharmaceuticals to patients.
- Pharmacy departments. Legal divisions that carry out the retail sale of drugs in accordance with the current requirements of the law. These include pharmacy kiosks, pharmacy points and the pharmacies themselves.
Participants in the circulation of pharmaceutical products in the manufacturing sector are required to comply with the current provisions of the law regarding state registration and licensing. Licensing in the field of circulation of medicines is an important component of the legal implementation of activities. Expired permits may result in administrative sanctions, up to and including suspension of activities. Trade in pharmaceuticals by pharmacy chains can only be carried out if there is a license for this type of activity.
The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation and the relevant supervisory departments act as the controlling subject of the drug turnover. They are engaged in the development of legislation in the field of production and sale medicines, as well as legal circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation. The Federal Supervision Service is struggling with various manifestations of illegal actions on the part of pharmaceutical companies, organizes various unscheduled checks and other measures aimed at preventing the sale of counterfeit goods.
Rospotrebnadzor also acts as the supervisory authority, the main goal of which is the protection of consumer rights and human well-being. In case of fixation of counterfeit drugs, active actions are taken up to the cancellation of the license of the pharmaceutical company. Rospotrebnadzor and Roszdravnadzor, together with the relevant Department, ensure the legality of the movement of medicines on the territory of the Russian Federation. 
How is the circulation of medicines in the Russian Federation?
The activities of all subjects of the pharmaceutical market are regulated by constitutional provisions, 61-FZ "On the circulation of medicinal products", No. 323-FZ "On the basics of protecting the health of citizens in the Russian Federation" and other regulatory frameworks, including agreements with other countries. In accordance with the main law in force, all subjects in the event of detecting side effects from the drug are required to report to the authorized federal divisions. Failure to comply with this requirement may result in severe sanctions.
The main stages of the circulation of medicines
- Manufacturer. On the initial stage purchases raw materials, conducts the necessary clinical and other trials, after confirming a positive result, launches mass production of drugs and sales to wholesale and retail pharmaceutical companies.
- Pharmacy networks. At the initial stage, procurement is carried out, supply contracts are drawn up, then acceptance, distribution and dispensing are carried out, and in case of data discrepancy, pharmaceutical products are returned.
Pharmaceutical market participants must ensure that only pharmaceutical products permitted in the territory of the Russian Federation are produced and sold. At the same time, each product must be provided with a certificate and the conclusion of the Sanitary and Epidemiological Service. At all stages of transportation, it is required to control compliance with the conditions of the legislator in order to avoid possible damage and contamination of drugs. Upon sale and acceptance, all data must be checked for consistency. Managers of pharmacy chains should pay special attention to the conformity of labeling of primary, secondary and group packaging.
Manufacturing pharmaceutical companies, wholesalers and retailers and pharmacy chains, in accordance with current regulations, must ensure that approved requirements for acceptance and distribution, as well as storage and transportation conditions, are observed. Causing harm to the consumer due to non-compliance with the norms of the law entails criminal liability and compensation for harm caused to human health.
The necessity of commodity circulation is objectively conditioned by the existence of commodity production and money. To clarify the essence of commodity circulation, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between the following concepts: exchange, commodity circulation, trade.
Under the conditions of the social division of labor, there is always an objective need for an exchange of activities between people in the form of an exchange of produced products of labor. Initially, the exchange takes place in this form, so it can be designated as P - P.
Exchange is a special phase of the reproduction process. In the relationship between production, distribution, exchange and consumption, exchange acts as a link between production and consumption (productive and personal). At the same time, distribution is a moment proceeding from society, and exchange from the individual.
As the social division of labor grew, the exchange of goods became a regular social process. Production arose specifically for exchange - commodity production. With its emergence, a corresponding form of exchange appears - commodity exchange. Direct commodity exchange can be designated as follows: T - T.
The exchange of goods with a developed social division of labor is carried out with the help of money. It reached its highest development under capitalism. And this is already nothing but commodity circulation, the formula of which is as follows: C - M - C.
Commodity circulation is the exchange of commodities carried out through money. It represents the process of changing forms of ownership, linking production (distribution) with consumption. Commodity circulation consists of many independent acts of purchase and sale, through which the transformation of commodities into money and money into commodities is carried out.
The circulation of commodities means that instead of the exchange of commodities as a one-act process of sale and purchase (C-C), commodity circulation involves a two-act process of sale and purchase mediated by money (C-M-C). Consequently, commodity circulation is connected with money circulation and presupposes a developed monetary form of value, developed functions of money. In this sense, commodity circulation is a special form of exchange.
With the emergence of the monetary form of value, commodity circulation acquired functional independence. At the initial stages, it was limited to the local markets. With the deepening of the social division of labor and the expansion of the sphere of commodity-money relations, single domestic markets and the world market were formed.
On the basis of commodity circulation, money circulation developed. It was relatively isolated and began to be regulated by the emerging laws of monetary circulation. In the future, the development of commodity circulation led to the development of credit circulation and circulation valuable papers.
Thus, in the course of the long historical evolution of commodity production and exchange, a complex set of social relations is formed, which reflects the process of movement of the total social product.
In modern conditions, commodity production is developing, and its inherent form of exchange, commodity circulation, is being improved. AT modern economy it has the following features:
1) the bulk of goods exchanged is created at enterprises with collective and public forms of ownership (state, cooperative enterprises, limited liability partnerships, joint-stock companies, concerns, corporations). Because of this, there is an economic basis for the development, first of all, of large commercial structures in the sphere of commodity exchange;
2) commodity circulation has a regulated character. Trade volume, price level, development trading network, the distribution of commodity stocks are regulated by the state and local authorities;
3) commodity circulation is characterized by competition, sales crises, speculation. These phenomena are not always associated with an increase in turnover and market capacity;
4) the sphere of commodity circulation may be limited by the state. For example, certain land areas, some enterprises can be withdrawn from it.
Commodity circulation performs two main functions:
1) it is subordinated to the satisfaction of the solvent demand of enterprises in the means of production and the population in consumer goods. This is its main function. Commodity circulation ensures the flow of material goods necessary to replace the consumed means of production, expand production and increase public consumption;
2) it compensates in money the cost of goods produced and brought to the market. As a result of the sale of products, the enterprises that produced them reimburse their costs and sell the surplus product necessary for expanding production.
As we see, the first function of commodity circulation is connected with the realization of the commodity as use value, the second - with its realization as value. The first function expresses the interests of consumers, the second - producers. With the internal unity of the functions of commodity circulation, there is a contradiction between them (violation of the nomenclature of commodity production, an increase in the production of expensive goods, a lack of certain types of products, overstocking).
On the basis of the social division of labor, commodity circulation is separated into a separate branch of macroeconomics - into trade. What is the objective expediency of this process?
Trade carries out the sale of goods, brings them from production to consumers, and also performs a number of operations to continue the production process in the sphere of circulation (sorting, packaging, packaging, storage of goods). As a result of refinement in the sphere of circulation, goods are given the form in which they are sold and put into consumption.
The separation of commodity circulation into an independent industry creates significant economic benefits for the whole society. Indeed, in trade:
1) the needs of consumers are better satisfied, since their study is organized in trade,
2) the personnel of trade workers and the material and technical base of trade (trade network, warehouses, bases, refrigerators, transport) are used more efficiently;
3) costs are reduced, and the process of circulation is strengthened, and production gets rid of functions unusual for it in the sale of goods,
4) the funds invested in the development of the sphere of circulation decrease relatively, and the funds directly advanced for the development of production increase relatively.
The peculiarities of commodity circulation of means of production and consumer goods lead to the fact that commodity circulation appears in several forms.
In the modern economy, there are three forms of internal commodity circulation: 1) material and technical supply (logistics), 2) purchases of agricultural products, 3) trade in consumer goods.
Let us turn to their analysis and presentation in sequence.
Material and technical supply (logistics) is a system of economic relations aimed at providing the means of production for all economic entities of society.
The purpose of logistics is the effective distribution of machines, machine tools, equipment, fuel, metal between enterprises to ensure uninterrupted reproduction. Material and technical supply as a process covers the distribution of means of production in industry, agriculture, capital construction, transport and other branches of macroeconomics.
Let us consider the second form of commodity circulation, which is widespread in our country.
The purchase of agricultural products is one of the commodity forms of communication between industry and agriculture, which ensures the supply of agricultural products to the national economy. From an economic point of view, purchases should provide society with such a quantity of agricultural products that is necessary for: 1) providing light and food industries with raw materials; 2) providing the population with food; 3) formation of state reserves; 4) formation of foreign trade funds.
Purchases of agricultural products are carried out in two forms:
1) in the form of centralized procurement. They are produced by government organizations and enterprises and are of great economic importance. Provide sustainable income for agricultural enterprises, achieve the correct proportionality of agricultural development;
2) in the form of decentralized procurement. They are carried out by cooperative, joint-stock and private enterprises.
The policy, forms and methods of purchasing agricultural products are established in accordance with the specific conditions and objective needs of each stage of economic development.
At present, the state also purchases agricultural products at fixed prices, but without constant planned assignments. A large number of products are sold by agricultural enterprises and peasant farms freely according to existing market prices. The volume of government purchases of agricultural products in Russia is shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1. Government purchases of agricultural products in Russia (million tons)
|
Product type |
Average per year | |||||
|
Sugar beet | ||||||
|
Potato | ||||||
|
Oilseeds | ||||||
|
Livestock and poultry (live weight) | ||||||
|
Eggs, billion pieces | ||||||
Let us analyze another form of internal commodity circulation - trade in consumer goods. Trade in consumer goods is the link between production and personal consumption. It performs the following functions in social reproduction:
1) realizes the monetary income of the population in a certain mass of goods,
2) through its goods, leaving the sphere of production and circulation, enter the sphere of personal consumption,
3) the increase or decrease in the standard of living of the country's population depends on its dynamics.
The presence of various forms of ownership determines the existence of various forms of trade in consumer goods: state, cooperative, private.
The entire amount of consumer goods sold to the population through state (municipal), cooperative and private trade is retail trade.
Retail trade turnover is the most important indicator of the development of trade and the growth of the living standards of the people. The volume and structure of retail trade in Russia is characterized by the data in Table. 8.2.
Table 8.2. Retail trade turnover in Russia by type of ownership
|
Whole volume |
Including by type of trade |
|||
|
state and municipal property |
private property |
other forms of ownership |
||
|
in billion rubles |
||||
|
in percents |
||||
A decrease in the share of state and cooperative trade with a corresponding increase in the share of private trade becomes natural in the change in the structure of the domestic market of Russia. This is due to a decrease in the production of consumer goods in the public sector of the economy, as well as the development of private production and commercial structures where consumer goods are created and sold.
The sphere of circulation is an economic form of bringing the results of production to consumers in the conditions of commodity relations. Development social production transformed the direct exchange of commodity for commodity into commodity circulation, which is a developed form of commodity exchange. The exchange is based on the needs and interests of a person, however, a person becomes the subject of exchange relations only when a number of material and socio-economic conditions arise, among which two are objectively necessary:
* the possibility of obtaining a surplus product;
* a certain degree of development of the division of labor.
The above conditions, firstly, presuppose the ability of an individual producer to receive more labor products than he is able to consume, and secondly, they create a contradiction between the diversity of the producer's needs and the limited types of products to satisfy them through independent production. It is these circumstances that are a prerequisite for the emergence of exchange relations among producers.
Among the issues related to trading business, of paramount importance is the structure of the exchange relations between two subjects regarding the objects of exchange that they own. The content of this relationship is the equating of heterogeneous objects. Exchange relations in the form of a set of single acts of exchange between two subjects represent market relations.
Objects market relations are the means to satisfy people's needs. Since the process of product movement from the producer to the consumer has a material (material) and economic content, there are 2 basic conditions for market exchange; the objects of exchange must satisfy various needs, i.e. be qualitatively different;
objects of exchange must be equivalent (equal) from an economic point of view.
In other words, the objects of exchange are qualitatively different as use values (otherwise there would be no point in making an exchange), but equal as values.
At a certain stage of economic development, the external expression of the value of a commodity is money, the universal equivalent. The economic content, the very essence of exchange, lies in the change of forms of value or the change of state. In the acts of sale and purchase, mediated by money, there is a movement of use values, the sale of goods.
With the development of market relations, the structure of objects of exchange receives a qualitative development. Economic theory associates this development with two main processes:
the transformation into objects of market exchange of factors of production - land, capital, labor;
the qualitative development of money itself as a means and object of exchange, which is manifested in the development of the functions of money, their types, the market infrastructure that ensures the functioning of the monetary system.
The problem of implementation from the point of view of social reproduction is not limited to ensuring the sale of the created product. Unity in the process of realizing the natural and value forms of the product involves regulating the correspondence of the money supply to a certain amount of means of production, consumer goods and services.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that the sphere of production directly depends on the sphere of circulation, that is, the sphere of production and circulation are interdependent.
Material and non-material values easily pass from one sphere to another. For example, money arises in the sphere of production and passes into the sphere of circulation and at the same time serves the sphere of production. The same can be said about the equipment - after the equipment is produced, it enters the sphere of circulation and at the same time, with the help of the equipment, new goods and services are produced, that is, a process of reverse transition takes place. The interaction of these two spheres constitutes an invariable cyclic process.
Scope of circulation- ϶ᴛᴏ economic form of bringing the results of production to consumers in terms of commodity circulation.
As a result of social production, the direct exchange of commodity for commodity has turned into commodity circulation, which will be a developed form of commodity exchange.
The exchange is based on the needs and interests of a person. It is worth saying that two conditions are necessary for the exchange to occur:
- the possibility of obtaining a surplus product;
- some degree of division of labor.
It is these conditions that make it possible for an individual producer to receive more products of labor than he is able to consume. Excluding the above, there is a contradiction between the fact that the producer's needs are more diverse, and the types of products that he independently produces are limited and cannot always satisfy these diverse needs. Therefore, the manufacturer needs an exchange.
If goods or services are exchanged for other goods and services, then this form is called barter. It was she who was characteristic at the initial stage of the development of society.
The structure of the exchange relations between two subjects regarding the objects of exchange, which they own, is of paramount importance. These relationships are built on the equating of heterogeneous objects.
Exchange relations in the form of a set of single acts of exchange between two subjects represent market relations.
In market exchange, when a product moves from producer to consumer, there will be material (material) and economic content. Therefore, there are two basic conditions for market exchange:
- objects of exchange must satisfy various needs, i.e. be qualitatively different.
- objects of exchange must be equivalent (equal) from an economic point of view.
That is, the objects of exchange differ in use value, but are equal in value. At a certain stage of the economic development of society, money began to act as an external expression of the value of a commodity as a universal equivalent.
It is in the sphere of circulation in the sale and purchase of commodities that a change in the forms of value takes place.
Economic theory explains the development of market relations for two reasons:
- such factors of production as land, labor, capital, have become objects of market exchange in connection with the economic development of society;
- there was a qualitative development of money itself as a means and object of exchange (the functions of money, their types change, the market infrastructure changes, in which the monetary system functions)
The form of commodity circulation carried out with the help of money is trade.
Introduction
1. Theoretical basis formation and functioning of the sphere of circulation 11
1.1. Sphere of circulation in a market economy 11
1.2. Russian specifics of the evolution of the sphere of circulation 35
2. Sphere of circulation in a transitional economy 57
2.1. The formation of market relations in Russia and their impact on the development of the sphere of circulation 57
2.2. Consumer demand and supply for domestic market in the context of reforming the Russian economy 73
2.3. Development of wholesale and retail in the process of market transformations 88
2.4. Development of the foreign trade complex in the post-reform period 109
3. Economic mechanism for regulating the sphere of circulation in a market economy 125
3.1. Factors of development of the sphere of circulation 125
3.2. Management of development factors in the sphere of circulation 144
Conclusion 156
Bibliography 160
Introduction to work
Relevance research topics. One of the main provisions of economic theory is the idea that an integral element of the market economy, which determines its essence and social purpose, is the sphere of circulation. It is a basic component of developed economic relations, largely contributing to the solution of the main task of social production - the satisfaction of the diverse needs of people. It is in the sphere of circulation that the produced use value is realized, production is connected with consumption, and the balance between supply and demand is maintained.
For a long time, the sphere of circulation in our country was formed mainly under the influence of strict administration, and the role of economic laws inherent in market relations was actually ignored. Economic regulators generally accepted in world practice were not used; planning for the development of trade was based on the possibilities of production, and not on the needs of the population; the main indicators (primarily the volume of trade) were communicated to trade enterprises by higher organizations and were binding; there were practically no economic incentives to expand activities.
With the start of economic reforms, Russia entered into new stage historical development. The formation of the mechanisms and instruments of a market economy led to cardinal transformational processes in the sphere of circulation, which highly actualized the problems of research in this area.
The degree of scientific development of the problem. The theoretical aspects of commodity circulation and trading activity are adequately presented in the scientific works of various times and peoples. The expediency of the division of labor and the allocation in the economy of such an industry as trade was pointed out by the ancient Greek philosophers Xenophon (c. 430-355 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC). .e.). Prominent scientists-economists of the XVI-XVIII centuries.
developed a view of trade as main source profits and the main type of capital, money circulation. The well-known English economist Thomas Maine (1571-1641) regarded merchant capital as the basis for the development of the economy, and Antoine de Montchretien (c. 1575-1621) considered its accumulation to be the main goal of various crafts and a source of profit.
Later, in the 18th century, the founders of Western economic thought Adam Smith (1723-1790) and David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed economic theory on the issues of market self-regulation, money circulation, commodity production and trade, revised the role of the state in regulating market relations.
The essence of the sphere of circulation, its influence on reproduction processes was revealed in the works of K. Marx (1818-1883). He saw the need to allocate trading capital for the commission of exclusively buying and selling. Trade was considered by him as a sphere of activity, and trading capital - as a means of making a profit and developing expanded reproduction.
The importance of trade for the industrial development of Russia and the world economy was shown in their works by Russian researchers A.N. “Conversations of a Russian merchant about trade. Practical course of commercial knowledge” (2 hours, St. Petersburg, 1848); "Collection of commercial knowledge" (St. Petersburg, 1850); "Reference Commercial Dictionary" (St. Petersburg, 1856).
In the XX century. P. B. Struve (1870-1944), having studied the processes of capitalist commodity circulation and the formation of market relations, proved the need for their development in Russia.
Researchers belonging to various scientific schools and areas consider the category "circulation" as a phase of social reproduction, since any economic product usually goes through the following stages: production, distribution, exchange, consumption. Thus, constantly (in time and space) there is a circulation of products, goods, services.
The sphere of circulation is an active "lever" of influence on production. Its value increases as the supply of goods increases. The strengthening of the economy and the growth of incomes of enterprises and the population enhance the role of the sphere of circulation in the reproduction process. It is for this reason that the sphere of circulation and various aspects of its functioning have become the subject of analysis in the works of such authors as I.V. Aleshina, A.V. Bachurin, Yu.A. Belyaev, E.F. Lozinsky, A.P. Mishchenko, P.M. Nureev, B.K. Plotkin, A.A. Spirin, V.A. Strokov and others.
At the same time, many problems in the development of the sphere of circulation in the domestic economy have not been fully studied by economic science. Against the background of a deep and detailed study of the features of the functioning of the sphere of circulation in economic systems different types (O.E. Bessonova, S.G. Kirdina and others), the transitive stage of development has been studied to a much lesser extent.
The idealization of the market at the first stage of Russian reforms formed the perception of the sphere of circulation as an absolutely self-regulating system. According to the author, the “openness” of the sphere of circulation implies a permanent possibility of both its constructive and destructive transformation, with all the ensuing consequences for the economy of the state as a whole. Against this background, controlling influences on the sphere of circulation can significantly increase the effectiveness of market reforms in Russia. This circumstance served as the basis for choosing the purpose and objectives of the dissertation work.
Goals and objectives of the study. The purpose of the dissertation research is to analyze the specific features of the development of the sphere of circulation in Russian Federation at the present stage and the development on this basis of an economic model for regulating the sphere of circulation.
In accordance with the set goal, the following tasks were identified and solved in the work:
The role of the sphere of circulation in a market economy is analyzed;
the features of the development of the sphere of circulation and its place in economic systems of various types are revealed;
the Russian specificity of the evolution of the sphere of circulation was studied;
the main stages of market transformations in Russia and the dynamics of the development of the sphere of circulation in the transitive period are considered, in particular, the dynamics of the development of wholesale and retail trade, and the foreign trade complex are analyzed;
substantiated theoretical approaches to the formation of a system that ensures the stabilization and efficiency of the development of the sphere of circulation;
the main factors of growth in the sphere of circulation and directions for optimizing their influence are determined.
Object and subject of research. The object of study in this paper is the sphere of circulation, as a key element that links all the components of a market economy into a single whole. The subject of the study is the specifics of the market transformation of the institutions of exchange and distribution that existed in the Russian economy, the problems of the transition period and the directions for their solution.
Theoretical and methodological basis of the study fundamental developments presented in classical and contemporary writings domestic and foreign scientists. In particular, during the development dissertation topic theories of comparative advantage, optimal functioning of the economy, cyclical dynamics, institutional theories of economic development, evolutionary principles, etc. were used.
The substantiation of the theoretical provisions and the argumentation of the conclusions were carried out on the basis of the implementation of general scientific methods; dialectical, system-functional, structural-level, historical-logical, monographic and economic-statistical analysis.
Legal framework. AT In the course of the study, legislative acts, directive and regulatory documents were analyzed and taken into account.
cops of the Government of the Russian Federation, program and predictive developments of state bodies and public organizations. Among the most significant normative documents regulating various aspects of the sphere of circulation should be called the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Civil, Tax and Customs Codes.
Separate elements of the economic relations studied in the dissertation suggest a clearer regulation. Thus, the functioning of the securities market is regulated federal law“On the Securities Market” No. 39-FZ of March 20, 1996 (as amended of March 7, 2005 No. 16-FZ); commodity markets by the laws “On Protection of Consumer Rights” of February 7, 1992 No. 2300-1 (as amended on December 21, 2004 No. 171-FZ), “On Competition and Restriction of Monopolistic Activities in Commodity Markets” (as amended by the Federal Law of 06.05 .1998 No. 70-FZ), certification of goods and services by the Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" dated December 27, 2002 No. 184-FZ; foreign trade activities by the laws "On currency regulation and currency control" dated December 10, 2003 No. 173-F3, etc.
Research information base presented by the content of monographs, scientific articles, other publications of Russian and foreign economists, as well as specialists in the field of economic history. The empirical basis of the study was the official statistical materials of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation and the Krasnodar Regional Committee state statistics, as well as data published in scientific economic journals.
The provisions of the dissertation submitted for defense:
1. The sphere of circulation is an integral element of the market economy and is a process of exchanging labor products, money, and other objects of property through purchase and sale. Ensuring the continuous movement of commodity-material and servicing flows, it performs essential function distribution and exchange of goods and services, agreed
of their production and industrial consumption, saving the cost of living and materialized labor, insurance of risks of producers and consumers, continuous information and communication exchange.
In Russian conditions, the formation of the sphere of circulation was distinguished by special specifics. In the pre-revolutionary period, it developed somewhat more slowly than in developed Western countries, which was due to lower rates of economic development, a high proportion of subsistence farming, and constant state control. In the Soviet era, activities in the sphere of circulation become the prerogative of the state, market mechanisms are replaced by rigid planned distribution system. In economic theory, such systems are called redistributive, that is, those in which the institution of exchange is replaced by the institution of "accumulation-coordination-distribution" (razdatka), which largely predetermined the development of the sphere of circulation in the post-reform period.
Price liberalization and mass privatization at the first stage of market reforms led to the stagnation of a huge number of Russian enterprises and a sharp social stratification, a drop in the incomes of the bulk of the population, and, consequently, a decrease in effective demand. Despite the fact that privatization in such areas as retail, wholesale and, to a lesser extent, international trade took place at the fastest pace, the emerging commercial mechanisms were aimed exclusively at making quick profits. A sharp increase in the number of intermediary links formed a hypertrophied structure of the exchange system and increased transaction costs. The underdevelopment of the market infrastructure: commodity and stock exchanges, logistics centers that coordinate the flow of goods on the basis of modern network technologies, etc. also hinder the adequate development of this area.
An analysis of the existing structures in the sphere of commodity circulation showed that the new backbone elements currently operating in the market were formed in the difficult conditions of the transition period in the absence of
vii of an adequate economic mechanism capable of sufficiently coordinating the interests of commodity producers, wholesale and retail trade enterprises and consumers of goods. Significant structural changes in the system of trade management as a single industry, which occurred in the course of economic reforms, significantly reduced the “controllability” of this area, since the possibility of coordinating activities for filling the market with goods and the movement of goods flows was largely lost.
5. The effective functioning of enterprises of various forms of ownership in market conditions, as well as ensuring social priorities from the point of view of social development, can be achieved by regulating the processes occurring in the sphere of circulation in general and commodity circulation as an element of this system, which is inherent in a developed market mechanism, and therefore , all the riags of stabilizing the effectiveness of the sphere of circulation should be involved. The key elements here are a change in approaches to conducting monetary and credit policy, the formation of an institutional environment and infrastructure in this area of activity.
Scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that it provides a detailed analysis of the development of the sphere of circulation in Russia, both in the pre-reform period and at the stage of market transformations.
the stimulating role of monetary policy is shown as a factor in the activation of the sphere of circulation;
the regulatory role of the state in creating institutional conditions for the accelerated development of the sphere of circulation and the full performance of its functions as a link of all elements of the market system is substantiated;
a system of measures aimed at improving the efficiency of functioning of both the sphere of circulation as a whole and the sphere of commodity circulation has been proposed.
Theoretical and practical significance research. The theoretical significance of the work lies in the fact that the conceptual provisions and conclusions of the dissertation research allow updating and expanding existing scientific ideas. about the content and directions of development of the sphere of circulation in modern Russian conditions and to determine the reserves for increasing its effectiveness.
The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that individual conclusions, generalizations and recommendations contained in the work can be used in legislative activities, macroeconomic forecasting and planning, state regulation of the process of socio-economic development, improvement of the institutional, social, legal, organizational foundations of the modern economy .
Separate conclusions and conceptual provisions of the dissertation can be used in teaching the course of economic theory, as well as special disciplines.
Approbation of the work and implementation of its results. The main provisions and results of the dissertation research were reported by the author at university and interuniversity scientific conferences published as separate brochures.
The main provisions of the dissertation were reflected in 6 publications, with a total volume of 5.5 p.p.
Structure and scope of work are determined by the nature of the issues under consideration, the tasks and methods of research. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, including eight paragraphs, a conclusion and a bibliographic list (162 sources). The work is presented on 173 pages and includes 15 tables, 11 figures,
Sphere of circulation in a market economy
The political and economic transformations taking place in Russia in recent years have led to an active rethinking of the basic postulates of economic theory. In our country, the implementation of various reforms was often accompanied by a complete revision of the old scientific approaches and concepts. At present, this process of revising the prevailing ideas is also observed in the sphere of circulation, however, today no one doubts the fundamental categories and concepts that have passed the test of time. This fully applies to such an economic category as the "circulation sphere". According to the classical definition, “circulation” is a form of exchange of products of labor, money, and other objects of property, characteristic of commodity production, through purchase and sale1. Representing an economic form of bringing the results of production to consumers, the sphere of circulation was formed in the conditions of commodity relations and transformed as the latter developed. Thus, the improvement of social production turned the direct exchange of goods for goods into commodity circulation, which was a developed form of commodity exchange (C-C). The exchange is based on the needs and interests of a person, however, a person becomes the subject of exchange relations only when a number of material and socio-economic conditions arise, among which two are objectively necessary: - the possibility of obtaining a surplus product; - a certain degree of development of the division of labor. The above conditions, firstly, presuppose the ability of an individual producer to receive more labor products than he is able to consume, and secondly, they create a contradiction between the diversity of the producer's needs and the limited types of products to satisfy them through independent production. It is these circumstances that are a prerequisite for the emergence of exchange relations among producers. Among the issues related to the development of the sphere of circulation, the structure of exchange relations between two subjects regarding the objects of exchange that they own is of paramount importance. The content of this relationship is the equating of heterogeneous objects. Exchange relations in the form of a set of individual acts of exchange between two subjects represent market relations, the objects of which are the means of satisfying people's needs. Since the process of product movement from the producer to the consumer has a material (material) and economic content, there are two main conditions for market exchange: - the objects of exchange must satisfy various needs, i.e. be qualitatively different; - objects of exchange must be equivalent (equal) from an economic point of view. In other words, the objects of exchange are qualitatively different as use values (otherwise there would be no point in making an exchange), but equal as values. At a certain stage of economic development, money became the external expression of the value of a commodity. The economic content, the very essence of exchange, lies in the change of forms of value, or the change of state.
In acts of purchase and sale, mediated by money, there is a movement of use values, the sale of goods (C-D-C). With the improvement of market relations, the structure of objects of exchange has received a qualitative development. Economic theory connects this development with two main processes: - transformation into objects of market exchange of factors of production - land, capital, labor; - the qualitative development of money itself as a means and object of exchange, which is manifested in the development of the functions of money, their types and changes in the market infrastructure that ensures the functioning of the monetary system. The problem of implementation, from the point of view of social reproduction, is not limited to ensuring the sale of the created product. The unity of the natural and value forms of the product in this process involves the regulation of the correspondence of the money supply to a certain amount of means of production, consumer goods and services. The normal state of the economy provides the possibility of implementing a two-pronged process, including the change of both the commodity form of the social product to the monetary one and the monetary one to the commodity one (D-T-D). This process is called market relations. In the conditions of market relations, a new structural element of social production functions - the sphere of circulation, which is characterized by the separation of material and labor resources, labor costs, in order to perform certain functions specific to the treatment. The capital functioning in the sphere of circulation - trading capital - is a separate part of industrial capital.
In practice, this means that an industrialist who invests his capital in the production of goods does not sell them himself, but transfers this function to special trade enterprises. Merchant capital thus becomes an agent of industrial capital, providing its commercial service. The economic meaning of this separation is that the merchant saves industrial time and money, because he sells goods faster and at lower costs. The entry of commercial capital into the process of selling goods serves as a basis for its participation in the division of the total mass of surplus value and for the receipt of commercial profit. The movement of trading capital is characterized formula D-T-D, where D - incremental money, trading profit, acting as a settlement category in the form of the difference between the purchase and sale prices. Thus, the "sphere of circulation" is that part of economic relations that includes the exchange processes carried out through purchase and sale.
Russian specifics of the evolution of the sphere of circulation
In countries with developed market economies, the evolution of market institutions took place as economic relations were transformed and was mostly progressive. In Russia, the specifics of its development were largely determined by the peculiarities of the state structure.
The emergence of commodity exchange relations in Russia dates back to ancient times. Already in the IX century. trade becomes an important area economic activity. The market (bargaining, marketplace, marketplace) occupied a central place in the Russian city. In connection with the emergence of manufacturing business in the XVII century. a noticeable consolidation of commodity production began, which caused the emergence of a large wholesale trade and by the middle of the 17th century. trade relations acquire a state character. A single market is being formed, which covers all segments of the population. However, the most noticeable was the growth in the trading activity of the merchants, especially in the sphere of interregional relations. The development of commodity production objectively required the sale of products on a large scale, and consequently, the emergence of large merchants - wholesalers, whose activities would have modified the previous trading operations. Meanwhile, the activity of wholesalers was limited due to two main reasons. First, the bulk of merchants experienced a lack of capital; secondly, most of the population of the Russian state lived in conditions of subsistence or semi-subsistence farming, so on a large scale it was possible to operate only those goods that were not available on small local markets. On the other hand, the low purchasing power of the population did not allow narrow specialization in trade.
The active development of domestic trade led to the transition Russian government to the politics of mercantilism. On October 25, 1653, the “trade charter” was promulgated, the main significance of which was to establish a single trade duty in the amount of 5% of the price of the goods sold and to increase the amount of duty from foreign merchants. Thus, trade charters protected the Russian people from foreign competition and at the same time increased the amount of revenue to the treasury.
Transformations of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. caused major changes in the economic life of the Russian Empire, including in trade. The conditions and structure of trade changed dramatically (in particular, a state monopoly was introduced on trade in especially profitable goods - salt and tobacco, as well as on export deliveries of oil, caviar, bread, resin, hemp, etc.). The traditional norms of relations between the state and the large merchants were revised, which lost their former economic power and was actually liquidated as an institution. At the same time, the position of a new layer of entrepreneurs, the guild merchants, was strengthened. The most important factor contributing to the development of their business activity was their involvement in the "company" form of entrepreneurship, since individual capitals were insufficient to create large private enterprises.
If in the 17th century large merchants tried to invest their profits in real estate, primarily in land, then in the post-reform period capital in circulation acquires paramount importance. An important role in the development of Russian merchant entrepreneurship was played by the legislative acts of Catherine II, aimed at expanding the civil rights of merchants.
Late 18th - early 19th century characterized by the renewal of the business world of the Russian Empire. The Russian legislation of that time assumed the activities of two types of business associations - trading house(full or on faith) and a joint-stock company. In this regard, domestic historians express the opinion that, in general terms, the principle of limited liability of shareholders was proclaimed in Russia half a century before its final approval in Western Europe.
Russian legislation of the 60s 19th century put an end to the inequality of estates in the right to private entrepreneurial activity and created conditions for the formation and development of entrepreneurship based on the labor market and the economic freedom of market entities.
In 1910, the number of people employed in the trade sector doubled, amounting to more than 2 million people. 345 thousand carriers and peddlers were engaged in mobile trade. They almost did not bear the costs of circulation, they managed to hide their turnover and avoid taxation or pay them in an insignificant amount, which contributed to the growth of mobile trade. Specific gravity stores in the structure of the trading network was only 13%, since the store trade required more significant capital investments and higher operating costs compared to the shop and, moreover, the tent-stall network. Trading in stores required a larger amount of working capital. Therefore, shop trade was mainly carried out by joint-stock companies. In 1910, the rate of return was 261% for a tent and stall network, 108% for a shop network, and 45.5% for a shop network.
It should be noted that in Russia at the beginning of the XX century. the most profitable in comparison with other sectors of the economy was precisely the capital placed in the sphere of trade.
Thus, even in the pre-revolutionary period, the development of the sphere of circulation in Russia was distinguished by a number of specific features: limited development due to the relatively low rates of social division of labor, and a high degree of state regulation.
The formation of market relations in Russia and their impact on the development of the sphere of circulation
The problem of choosing a model of economic development, in conditions when the failure of the administrative-command system became obvious, was a key one for the Russian economy in transition.
In the 20th century, Russia "modernized" three times: "autocratic" modernization at the beginning of the century, "Soviet" modernization, and, finally, at the end of the century, in the 1980s-1990s. new "perestroika" wave. First (in Russian Empire) and the second (in the USSR) waves of modernization were associated with an attempt to overcome the backlog from the industrialized countries of the West. The third fell on the stage “gap” in the development of the democratic (liberalized) countries of the so-called free world, which entered the post-industrial (information) society, and the socialist states that retained the economic structure of the industrial society1.
The first attempts at economic reforms took place in the mid-1980s, when a course was proclaimed to accelerate socio-economic development, but the financial crisis, the increase in the budget deficit, the decline in oil prices on the world market, the loss of income as a result of the anti-alcohol company, the growing pent-up demand of the population ultimately lead to the actual failure of reforms. In this situation, the country's leadership comes to a decision about the need to switch to new methods of management, which is put forward as one of the priorities2. The sharply increased interest in market methods of management contributes to a rethinking of the role of the market in the economy. Apologists for market development in Russia (many of whom only yesterday viewed it as a carrier of spontaneity) put forward the thesis that only the introduction of private property will ensure the active development of market relations. Obviously, many of the reforms that followed this were aimed not so much at ensuring the economic development of the country, but at the maximum use by the authorities of the opportunity to "grab" from state property, in the face of the inevitable collapse of the system, as large a piece as possible.
Thus, already at the very initial stage of the transition to market relations, the experience of developed countries was practically not taken into account, in which the market was no longer regulated by an “invisible hand” that automatically creates a balance between supply and demand, integration processes were actively developing, the role of joint-stock companies increased, small enterprises, the number of which increased significantly on the basis of deepening and specialization, as a rule, functioned in cooperation with big firms. In the West, interest in planning and management grew, the role of the state in regulating national production, developing science and technology, solving employment problems, and strengthening the country's financial position grew. The well-known American economist J. Galbraith wrote: “The creative potential of the industrial system lies in the organized use of capital and technology. It became possible due to the widespread replacement of the market by planning. All outstanding accomplishments of the industrial system are the result of planning: our aircrafts wouldn't go to the moon (and not even Los Angeles very often) if their creation depended on market incentives. This applies equally to other services, amenities and products supplied by the industrial system - from telephone communication to comfortable cars and toothpaste. In all cases, we are talking about careful planning of product output, careful price control, careful calculations aimed at ensuring that products correspond as much as possible to consumer demand and that the components necessary for production - labor, raw materials and materials, machines - can be purchased in the required amount, in advance fixed prices and in due time. To leave the solution of all these problems to the market is, from the point of view of those who are mainly concerned, like leaving the solution to blind chance.
In the Russian economics at the turn of the 1980-1990s. two alternative proposals for the transition to the market were actively discussed. The first of them is a gradual transition associated with the creation of real prerequisites designed to balance the growth of the money supply with commodity security, create conditions for the convertibility of the ruble, implement a system of measures to improve finances, and revise prices. One of the serious arguments of such an approach to major transformations in the economy was related to the need to implement the laws adopted by that time on property, land, rent, etc.
The authors of the second approach proceeded from the fact that the main stimulus and engine of economic progress in the current situation can only be the market. From their point of view, it was necessary to force the transition to a market economy by all possible means.
Factors of development of the sphere of circulation
In the conditions of market transformations, the problem of exchange is often ignored by the state, while it should take one of the key places. In the sphere of exchange (circulation of goods), the sale of products is ultimately carried out, the reproduction process is resumed, the needs (demand) of the population are studied and formed. It reflects the positive and negative results of economic policy as a whole and its main components: financial, monetary and foreign exchange policy. The problem of circulation at the present stage is, in fact, the problem of economic development, the problem of coordinating the interests of economic and socio-economic agents and institutions. It is at the forefront of resolving current problems in the economy. Market economic conditions do not exclude, but rather presuppose state regulation, which is understood as a complex system of measures taken by the state to create the prerequisites for the effective development of a market economy. State intervention in the functioning of the market mechanism is based on the symbiosis of elements of various theories of regulation - the concepts of Keynesianism (J.M. Keynes, J.V. Robinson), monetarism (M. Friedman), convergence of socio-economic systems (J.K. Galbraith, W. Rostow, Ya. Tinbergen). These theories were developed in relation to the conditions of developed market relations, but in their pure form, none of them is practically used. The attractiveness of each theory is manifested only at a certain stage in the development of society. Apparently, the creed expressed by the supporters of Adam Smith, that "the state that regulates the least" regulates best, when there is "anarchy plus a constable", has long since passed into the past. Even P. Samuelson noted that although “the result of this was a whole century of rapid economic progress and an atmosphere of individual freedom, it also led to periodic economic crises, the plundering and depletion of irreplaceable natural resources to the extremes of poverty and wealth, the disintegration of the state apparatus by groups pursuing different goals, and at times to the displacement of self-regulating competition by a monopoly”1. Freeing the market from state interference would be worthwhile if “the general interest would be obtained as the unintended result of people acting in their own best interests ... However, the summation of narrow self-interests through the market mechanism entails unintended negative consequences ... In our time, it is dangerous -ness does not come from communism, but from market fundamentalism. George Soros comes to this conclusion. It would be useful to recall that long before A. Smith in 1615, the French economist A. Montchretien, in his work “Treatise of Political Economy Dedicated to the King and Queen”, considered the economy as a set of rules for managing and substantiated the need for active state intervention in the country's economy in order to increase it. wealth. The above statements point to the most important state function associated with state control and regulation, which should cover the most diverse aspects of economic activity. Analyzing the role of the state in the economy, G. Kleiner, D. Petrosyan and A. Bechenov single out the following channels of state influence on the economy as a whole: direct regulation, management of state property, and influence through influence on society1. It is traditionally believed that the impact of the state differs in methods, volumes, areas of activity and is carried out in the following areas: - regulation of money circulation through budgetary, monetary, tax policy; - regulation of proportions of reproduction and structural development of the economy; - development of a system of priority targeted programs to achieve key parameters of the state of the economy or its individual sectors or areas; - establishment of social, humanitarian, environmental standards; - rationing of prices and tariffs for certain goods and services, such as basic necessities, basic foodstuffs, utilities and etc.; - introduction and control over compliance with quality standards for products and services; - determination of requirements for statistical, accounting and other information provided by business entities in government bodies. All of the above methods, to one degree or another, relate to both the market as a whole and to each of its subsystems, including the sphere of circulation. No less important is the fact that humanity is entering the 21st century against the backdrop of rapidly accelerating globalization processes that inevitably change the entire context in which the social categories and patterns known to us are formed and formed. Accordingly, the theories, concepts, and institutions that have developed at the level of individual national states must undergo fundamental changes during the transition to the global level. However, as rightly noted by V.M. Kollontai "the vast majority contemporary research problems of globalization uses the same conceptual, categorical and methodological apparatus”1. So, one of the original premises market theory is the atomization of society, the presence of many independent producers and consumers freely interacting in the market and having comparable opportunities for further development. Globalization is changing the previous situation, both in world economic centers and on the periphery.