The study of the cost of working time and the time of using equipment is carried out directly at each workplace through observations (analytical research method) in order to:
. identifying the cost structure of working time, eliminating losses and its unproductive costs by making fuller use of the capabilities of equipment, technology, organization of labor and production;
. assessment of the applied techniques and methods of work;
. determination of the optimal variant of the content and sequence of execution of individual elements of operations;
. calculation of norms and standards;
. establishing the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant overfulfillment of the norms.
All methods of studying the cost of working time can be divided into two groups:
1) methods of direct observation;
2) the method of momentary observations.
Direct observation methods include:
. timing;
. photo of the working day;
. self-photo of the working day;
. photochronometry.
Timing is a way of studying the time spent on the execution of cyclically repeated manual and machine-manual elements of an operation. It is used to design a rational composition and structure of the operation, establish their normal duration and develop on this basis the standards used in the calculation of technically sound time standards. Timing is used to check the norms established by calculation, mainly in mass and large-scale production, as well as to control the level of fulfillment of time norms and adjust these norms. In addition, timekeeping is used in the study of best practices in order to disseminate them.
Timing can be continuous and selective. With continuous measure all the methods of the operation in their technological sequence during the operational time; with selective timing during the execution of the operation, only individual tricks are measured, regardless of their sequence, but in such a way that the duration of all the tricks of the operation is ultimately determined.
Timing consists of the following steps:
. preparation for observation;
. observation;
. processing of timing observations;
. analysis of the results, conclusions, establishment of norms and design of operational time standards.
Preparation for chronometric observation consists in choosing the object of observation, dividing the operation into its constituent elements, determining fixing points, establishing the number of necessary measurements, and providing appropriate organizational and technical conditions for working at the workplace. A fixing point is the moment of coincidence of the end of the last movement of the previous reception (complex) with the beginning of the first movement of the subsequent reception of the operation. The establishment of fixation points is necessary for the correct measurement of the duration of receptions.
The required number of measurements is set for each element of the operation, it depends on the required data accuracy. To obtain the most reliable data, more observations should be made (Table 1).

Preparation for observation ends with the entry into the observation list of the elements of the operation under study in their technological sequence.
In the process of observation, the duration of each normalized element of the operation (movement, technique or complex of techniques) is measured and recorded. To measure the duration, stopwatches, chronometers and special time recorders (multi-dial pointers and digital instruments), devices for printing information on special forms or punched tape and film equipment are used. The duration of the elements of the operation is determined by the current time or individual readings. When recording at the current time, data is entered into the observation sheet that fixes the moment of the end of the first and the beginning of the subsequent elements of the operation without stopping the chronometer or stopwatch. The duration of the elements of the operation, necessary to obtain the time series, is revealed later, in the process of processing the data of the time observation.
With selective timing, during the execution of the operation, the duration of only individual normalized elements is fixed. In this case, the stopwatch or chronometer is started up with the beginning of this element of the operation and turned off simultaneously with its end.
Timekeeping observations should begin at a steady rational pace of work, when all the stipulated conditions are met and labor methods are mastered.
The observer fixes the duration of the normalized elements of the operation, and also notes the duration of breaks and various deviations that occurred during timing in a special column of the chronomap.
As a result of chronometric observations for each element of the operation, recorded data on the duration of its execution are accumulated. Repeatedly recorded duration of the same element of the operation forms a time series. When timing Special attention is given to manual and machine-manual methods of operation, machine methods are determined by calculation.
The time series obtained in the course of observations are analyzed and subjected to statistical processing. The analysis and processing of time series is performed in the following order:
1) compose rows with a sufficient number of measurements;
2) establish the degree of stability of the series;
3) calculate the standard of the estimated duration of each element;
4) identify the possibility of combining the elements of the operation;
5) establish the norm of operational time.
In the practice of normalization, the degree of stability of a series is usually determined by the coefficient of stability, which is the ratio of the maximum measurement size in the time series to the minimum. The resulting actual stability coefficient for each element of the operation is compared with the standard coefficient (Table 2).

If the actual coefficient exceeds the normative value, the time series is considered unstable and timing for this element of the operation should be repeated.
According to the time series, recognized as stable, the arithmetic mean duration of the operation element is determined.
The analysis of the results of observation consists in identifying the possibility of eliminating individual elements of the operation that are not necessary, replacing a number of elements with more rational ones in time, in establishing the possibility of overlapping in time of individual elements of manual work with the operating time of the equipment.
A photograph of working time (FW) is a method of studying the labor process in order to identify the costs of working time during the period under study (usually a shift). With this method, the main attention is paid to determining the loss of working time, as well as studying the costs of preparatory and final time, the time of servicing the workplace and the time required for rest. The photograph of working time is carried out for the purpose of:
. compiling the actual balance of working time (shift) by identifying all its costs for this period, grouping them into time categories (preparatory and final, main, auxiliary, break times, etc.);
. identifying the causes of losses and waste of time with the subsequent development of measures to eliminate them;
. designing a normal balance of working time, providing for the improvement of the use of working time by eliminating losses;
. obtaining the data necessary for normalizing the preparatory and final time, the time for servicing the workplace and breaks, for compiling standard tables for these categories of time;
. determining the number of workers required to service individual units, or the number of pieces of equipment serviced by one worker.
During the working hours, they monitor the operation of mechanisms and the workers serving them and make appropriate entries in the observation sheet of photographs of working time. At the end of the observation, the received data is processed: a summary of time is compiled by categories of working hours; develop organizational and technical measures; design a normal working time balance; systematize the data necessary for the preparation of standards for the preparatory and final time, time for maintenance of the workplace, time for rest.
The level of detail in the records depends on the purpose of conducting the PDF and on the type of production. In single and small-scale production, less detail is allowed than in high-volume and mass production, where a more accurate analysis of time costs is needed. But they always record in detail all interruptions in work, indicating their reasons. The results of photographs of working time for the purposes of analysis are grouped into categories of working time.
To facilitate the processing of observation results, the symbols of time categories are used - indices developed in accordance with the classification of time costs (Table 3).

There are the following types of photographs of working time:
. individual, when one worker serves as the object of observation;
. group, when the object of observation is a group of workers performing the same or different operations independently of each other;
. route-group photo;
. self-photo.
In an individual STF, the observer examines the use of time by one worker during a shift or other period of time. When it is carried out, registration is carried out with an accuracy of one minute. The undoubted advantage of this type of PDF is that high precision the data obtained (by types and categories of working hours), the possibility of identifying the causes and perpetrators of the resulting losses. But information about the structure of the working day of one worker, who, knowing about the observation, wittingly or unwittingly distorts the true state of things, gives practically nothing for evaluating the use of working time by all workers in the unit as a whole.
A group photograph of a working day is carried out in cases where it is required to monitor the use of a shift fund of time by several workers located in a limited area (machine operators in the area visible to the registrar, assembler teams, etc.). It provides a more complete coverage of the object in space and more cost-effective data collection than individual.
Route-group is such a PDF, in which the registrar moves along a certain route, fixing the use of the shift fund of time for a group of workers. Its use is expedient for monitoring auxiliary and service workers moving within the service area assigned to them. The use of a route-group PDF for monitoring stationary workplaces does not make much sense, since the method of momentary observations is more effective here.
The essence of self-photography is that one or more workers themselves register their own shift time costs. Self-photography, carried out by workers, is to some extent close to simple sheets: here, too, not the entire fund of working time is studied, but only a certain part of it - downtime and the reasons for their occurrence. The disadvantages of self-photography include subjective nature, low accuracy and incompleteness of the information received.
A photo of working time is carried out in the following order:
1) preparation for observation, which consists in a detailed study and description of the object of observation and the production environment;
2) observation in the form of sequential registration of all time spent;
3) processing of received data.
In the process of observation, the observation sheet records all the actions of the performer and breaks in the order in which they actually occur. In the column "Current time" the end time of the observed elements of working time is indicated.
When processing the data in the observation sheet, according to the record of the time spent, their index is set and by subtracting the previous time from the next one, the amount of costs is determined. Based on these data, a summary of the time spent is compiled, and then the actual and standard balance of working time is established.
Next, an analysis of the results of observation is carried out: actual costs are compared with standard values; irrational costs and loss of working time are determined; their causes are established; actions are suggested to ensure troubleshooting.
As a result, the compaction of working time is achieved, which can be characterized by the coefficient of compaction and the coefficient of a possible increase in labor productivity by eliminating time losses.
The growth of labor productivity (P) for each proposal aimed at eliminating losses and unproductive costs of working time is calculated by the formula

where Top.n, Top.f - projected and actual operational time.
The choice of the object of observation when photographing working time depends on the goal. To justify the standards of preparatory and final time and time for servicing the workplace, the objects of observation should be advanced workers who can rationally use their working time. For development organizational and technical measures for the elimination of losses and the compaction of working time use observational data for all workers.
According to the technique of conducting observations, a photograph of a working day can be:
. continuous, when time measurements are carried out continuously throughout the entire observation period;
. discontinuous (route), in which time measurements are made at certain, relatively small intervals; such a PDF is used for workers (or teams) who do not have permanent jobs (for example, for transport teams, etc.).
Photochronometry is a combined method of studying the costs of shift time by observation, in which all the costs of working time during the shift are recorded simultaneously. At the same time, the actions of the worker, which directly constitute the labor operation, are studied by the observer especially carefully, and their duration is fixed, as in timekeeping, by continuous recording. Photochronometry is used to study the time spent for the same purposes as the PDF and timing. Photochronometry can be individual and group. With individual photochronometry, the time spent on work and an operation performed by one performer is studied; with group - the time spent on interconnected work carried out by a group of workers.
The most effective is the combination of chronometric and momentary observation of the use of a changeable time fund, i.e., momentary photo timing. At the same time, the advantages of momentary observation (that is, the absence of a negative effect of the constant presence of the registrar near the workplace that distorts the production rhythm) and conventional photo timing are organically combined.
The latter consist in the presence of a dual purpose of such observation: to reveal the full value of intra-shift losses of working time and to establish the true level of labor productivity. Their simultaneous presence puts workers and foremen in front of a difficult dilemma: either minimize (during the period of momentary photo timing) intra-shift losses of working time and thereby demonstrate real labor productivity, or vice versa. In principle, momentary photochronometry makes it possible to determine the maximum achievable levels of extensive and intensive use of working time.
The method of momentary observations, based on the application of probability theory and mathematical statistics to the study of working hours, consists in the simultaneous observation of a large number of objects, the state of which is recorded periodically, at a predetermined interval. To study the cost of working time using this method, it is necessary to establish the duration, interval and route of observation.
The reliability of the data obtained is determined by the required number of observations, i.e., the number of moments or measurements. In mass and large-scale production, they are satisfied with the confidence level of the expected result, equal to 0.84. Then the formula for determining the number of moments (M) will look like this:

where a is a coefficient that determines the level of probability of finding an error within the established limits (for large-scale production a = 2); k - the share of the studied type of time expenditure in the total duration of working time; R - admissible value relative error of observation results (usually taken within 3-10% of k).
For serial and small-scale production, the confidence probability is taken equal to 0.92, a = 3. Then the number of moments is calculated by the formula

To determine the number of observation moments, depending on the type of production, special tables have been developed.
Momentary observations are carried out in the following order:
1) determine the required number of moments according to the formulas given above, or tables;
2) calculate the length of the bypass route in meters (L) and the number of observation objects during one bypass (m);
3) calculate the duration of one round:

where 0.6 is the average length of one step, m; 0.01 - average duration of one step, min;
4) count the number of observation moments for one shift:

where Tcm - shift duration, min; kv - coefficient taking into account the time mismatch (taken within 0.5-0.7);
5) determine the duration of observation in shifts:

When choosing a site and an observation route, a good overview of all equipment located on it and all workplaces should be provided. The composition of the equipment at the site and the sequence of operations can be any, but the nature of the work is different. When the observer sequentially walks around the objects located on his site, the state of each of them at that moment is recorded in the map of momentary observations.
The overall result of shift observation is determined by counting the number of marks (fixed moments) for each of the indices and each machine (workplace, etc.). The result is entered in the last columns of the map of momentary observations. Each of the marks corresponds to a certain time interval. By multiplying the number of marks by the duration of the interval, the duration of each type of time expenditure is obtained.
According to the calculation, they make up the actual balance of working time. Analysis of the results of observation is carried out in the same way as with an individual photograph of working time.
After compiling the balance of working hours, it is necessary to check whether the data obtained meet the conditions of the accepted marginal error.
The relative value of the marginal error is calculated by the formula

The method of moment observations in comparison with continuous observation has a number of advantages:
. simplicity of observations, low labor intensity of processing observation materials;
. the possibility of studying by one observer the costs of working time of a large number of objects.
The disadvantages of the method include the lack of data on the sequence of certain types of expenditures of working time and the number of their repetitions.

Questions for self-control

1. What is meant by working time? What is its composition?
2. What classifications of the contractor's working time exist?
3. What methods are used to study the cost of working time?
4. What is timing? Its purpose, types, procedure.
5. What does the stability coefficient of the time series show?
6. What is photo timing? What is its purpose?
7. What are the goals of working day photography?
8. What is the essence of self-photography?
9. What are the advantages of the method of momentary observations in comparison with the methods of continuous observation?

Examination production possibilities each workplace, studying the experience and the most advanced methods of work, identifying intra-shift losses and obtaining the necessary materials for the development of standards and norms requires systematic monitoring and analysis of working time costs.

The choice of specific methods for studying working time largely depends on:

• the content of the production process(mechanical or physico-chemical);
• the degree of mechanization of the worker's labor;
• type of production;
• forms of labor organization at the workplace (individual, brigade, multi-machine);
• the frequency of repetition and the duration of the cycle of the production process (processes are cyclic, periodic and continuous).

The variety of production processes and forms of labor organization, the different content and repeatability of the expenditure of working time, as well as the goals of their study, necessitate the use of unequal methods and techniques of observation, different equipment. Methods of study and varieties of monitoring the cost of working time can be classified according to the following criteria (Table 1).

The method of continuous (continuous) measurements - the most common and universal - used in all production processes with various forms of labor organization and types of study of working time (timing, photography); allows you to get the most complete, detailed and accurate idea not only of the average, but also of the actual costs and losses of working time in terms of their content, magnitude and sequence of execution.

Table 1

Classification of methods for studying the cost of working time

Classification sign	Variety
By observation method	Measurements: solid; selective; periodic; cyclic; momentary observations
	Timing. Photo (working day, equipment usage, production process)
By object of observation	Individual. Group (brigade). Route. multi-machine
According to the form of recording the results of observations	Digital. Index. Graphic. Oscillographic. Combined. Photo and filming
By way of observation	Visually. With the help of appliances. self photography

Method of periodic observations, used for group and route photography, allows you to: obtain data on the number of cases of occurrence of certain costs, loss of working time or equipment downtime. Supervision is carried out simultaneously over the work of a large number of workers or pieces of equipment. Simultaneous coverage is up to 20 objects, sometimes one person can monitor 70 workers.

Sampling method It is mainly used for timekeeping, when individual elements of an operation are studied. It is most widely used in the study of auxiliary time techniques in the conditions of a multi-machine organization of labor, instrumental processes.

Cycle measurement method - a kind of selective observation process - it is used only for timing, when it is necessary to measure the execution time of techniques (actions or movements) with a very short duration, and therefore it is impossible to accurately fix the time of their execution using conventional methods of observation (using stopwatches). Here, time measurements are made by groups of individual techniques.

Method of instant observations the cost of loss of working time and use of equipment over time is based on probability theory and is a kind of sampling method. In order for the results of observations to reflect the actual use of working time, the following conditions must be observed:

• observations of certain expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible;
• the number of observations (sample size) should be large enough to reliably characterize the observed phenomenon as a whole.

These conditions are ensured if, when determining the number of observations, the rules of statistics for sample surveys are applied. The volume of observations is determined by the formula:

where: M - sample size (number of measurements per unit of observation to be recorded) or number of momentary observations, tabular values;

TO - the utilization rate of working hours. The value of this coefficient is taken from the data of earlier observations or is taken approximately;

(1 - TO) - the share of breaks or downtime, i.e. the probability of finding a worker or machine inactive; R - the permissible value of the relative error of the results of observation, which in the practice of studying working hours and the use of equipment in time is taken within 3-10% (in the formula it is put down in fractions of a unit - 0.03-0.1); a is the coefficient associated with reliability, i.e. with the confidence probability of non-exit of the observation error R beyond the established limits.

Usually, in the practice of photography of working time, it is enough to limit oneself to the probability of one or another event within 0.84-0.95, i.e. 84-95 cases out of 100, the error will not go beyond the acceptable range. With a further increase in reliability, the number of observations will increase dramatically. Therefore, sometimes it is advisable to go for some reduction in the accuracy of the results of observations.

Under the conditions of a stable technological process and repeated repetition of the elements of the cost of working time, it is possible to take a = 1.4, which corresponds to a confidence probability of 0.84. With the sample size obtained with such a, the results will be quite acceptable. They are determined by the formula:

In conditions of an unstable production process (single and small-scale production), the calculation is carried out according to the following formula:

More observations are made in conditions of less sustainable production, less - in production with greater process stability.

According to the object of observation, the following methods are distinguished:

• 1) individual if supervision is carried out over the work of one worker;
• 2) group - the work of several workers or machines is studied;
• 3) brigade- supervision is carried out over a team of workers engaged in the implementation of technological related work at one workplace;
• 4) multi-station - monitoring the work of one worker, engaged in service several cars;
• 5) route - observation is carried out on the work of a worker moving along a certain route, or on the work of several workers located far from each other, which forces the observer to bypass the studied workplaces along a predetermined route.

According to the method of fixing the cost of working time, methods can be distinguished when observations are made by an observer:

• visually using the simplest time devices (clocks, stopwatches);
• with the help of instruments, i.e. fixing the beginning and end of individual elements of the cost of working time with devices different kind;
• fixing the cost of working time by the workers themselves (self-photography).

Recording of the results of observations can be carried out with the help of numbers, indices, graphically, photography and filming, oscillographic and combined recording.

The main types of studying the cost of working time are timing, photography and photo timing. Their most common varieties are given in Table. 2.

Studying the use of working time using these methods consists of the following steps:

• preparation for observation;
• its implementation in accordance with the chosen type;
• processing results;
• analysis of the received data and design of more rational labor processes.

table 2

Varieties of photography and timekeeping

	Method observations	An object observations	Results Recording Form	Way observations
Photo	Solid (continuous)	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Group	Index	With the help of appliances
	Periodic	Brigade	Graphic
	Selective	route	Combined	self photography
	Moment	multi-machine
Timing	Solid	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Brigade	Graphic	With the help of appliances
	Selective	multi-machine	and filming
	Cyclic			Oscilloscope recording, combined

Photo of working time. Under the photograph of working time (day) is understood the type of study of working time by observing and measuring all costs without exception during the working day or a separate part of it.

The main objectives of photography:

• identifying losses of working time, establishing their causes and developing measures to improve the organization of labor by eliminating losses and wasted time;
• obtaining initial data for the development of standards for preparatory and final time, time for rest and personal needs, service standards;
• determining the reasons for non-compliance with the norms by workers, studying the best experience, determining the possibility of combining professions and multi-machine maintenance;
• obtaining source materials in order to establish the most rational organization workplaces and their maintenance. Consider the methodology for taking photographs of working time

on the example of an individual photograph of a working day.

Regardless of the types of photography, the methodology for its implementation includes the following stages: preparatory, observation, processing of observation results, analysis of observation results.

At the preparatory stage, the purpose of photography is determined (detection of loss of working time, development of standards, etc.) and the object of observation is selected in accordance with the goal.

After determining the purpose and object of observation, one should carefully study the working conditions at the workplace, choose a place from which it is convenient to observe the worker without disturbing him, and inform him about the purpose of photography.

On the front side of the observation sheet (photocard), during the period of preparation for taking a photograph, detailed information about the worker, equipment, work performed, organization and maintenance of the workplace, etc. is recorded. . sharply expressed moments of the beginning and end of the operation or category of labor costs in accordance with their classification.

Monitoring consists in a consistent and detailed record in the observation sheet of everything that happens at the workplace. Photographing is carried out from the moment the work begins, so the observer must come to the site 10-15 minutes before the start of work workplace. The entry is made in text, index or graphically on a time scale (Table 3). The column "Current time" records the end time of the observed time categories.

Table 3

Observation sheet of individual photo of working hours

(fragment)

Processing of the results of observation begins with the calculation of the duration of the individual elements of the cost of time. To do this, the value of the previous element of work is subtracted from the indicators of the current time. For example, for the first element: 7 hours 05 minutes. - 7 h. 00 min. = 5 min. etc.

Then, in accordance with the developed indexation of the time spent in the form of a photo card, the corresponding indices are put down for each action of the worker. All elements of work that have the same index are combined into groups and a summary of the costs of the same name is compiled, which characterizes the actual time spent on work (Table 4).

An analysis of the results of observations makes it possible to establish whether all the expenditures of working time are necessary and rational under the existing organization of labor, what are the losses of working time, and what measures must be taken in order to further increase labor productivity. The developed activities are included in the plans with the indication of the performers and the timing of implementation.

Table 4

Form of a summary card of an individual photograph of working time

(conditional example)

working time	Name of time spent	Index	Total continue validity costs,	Normalized Duration costs, min.	Eliminate expenses,
preparatory and final, T p,	Receipt and delivery of an order, drawing
	Industrial briefing
	Equipment setup Total: T pz, min.
	Total: Г„, min.
Operating time, T op

Based on the data obtained, the actual and standard balances of working time are compiled.

An example of the actual balance of working time is presented in Table. 5.

Based on the data of the actual and standard balances of the worker, the following indicators are calculated.

Shift time utilization ratio (K Spanish):

where: T pz - preparatory-final time;

T op - operational time;

T obs- time of service of the workplace;

T ex - time for rest and personal needs is taken into account within the standard;

T cm - duration of the work shift.

Table 5

Actual working time balance

(conditional example)

Time spent	Duration		Designation
Preparatory and final work
Operational work
Including: main
auxiliary
Workplace maintenance
Rest and personal needs
Downtime due to organizational and technical reasons
Loss of working time due to violations of labor discipline
Total balance sheet:

(K psh):

where: T psh - time of interruptions caused by violations of the normal course of the process.

The coefficient of loss of working time due to violation of labor discipline (K ntd):

where: T ntd- Time of breaks due to violation of labor discipline.

The percentage of possible increase in labor productivity, subject to the elimination of direct losses of working time (P Fri):

Projected (standard costs) are taken from time standards or from the results of a photograph of the best employee's working day. If there is no such data, then the avoidable losses and irrational costs of working time are deducted from the actual costs. When compiling the normative balance of working time, no time is provided for breaks due to violations of the normal technological process, and breaks associated with violations of labor discipline. All savings in these categories of working time costs are considered a reserve for increasing operational time.

To calculate the standard balance of working time, the time standards for preparatory and final operations, maintenance of the workplace, rest and personal needs approved for this type of work are used. The operational time is determined, the normative ( T op n):

where: H obs and H osh - respectively, the time standards for servicing the workplace and for rest and personal needs as a percentage of the operational time.

In our example, we conditionally assume that H obs = 6%, N ex = 5%, T pz= 15 min., then

Then, based on this value, the duration of the standard time for servicing the workplace and for personal needs is determined.

All standard costs must be the duration of the working day in minutes.

The normative balance of working time is presented in Table. 6.

Table 6

Normative balance of working hours

(conditional example)

The maximum possible increase in labor productivity while eliminating all losses and unnecessary costs of working time (L pt) calculated by the formula:

where: T opf - actual operating time.

Based on the information received, specific organizational and technical measures are developed aimed at eliminating the causes that cause losses and unnecessary costs of working time. When developing these measures, it is necessary to provide for: the specific content of the measures, the place and timing of their implementation, the responsible executors, the expected reduction in the loss of working time, the change in the current and total amount of one-time (capital) costs, if necessary.

Measures must be economically justified. For this, their expected conditionally annual economic efficiency is calculated.

The methodology for conducting group, route and other types of photography of working time is basically similar to individual photography.

Continuous observation is laborious and requires a large number of observers. This mostly applies to individual photography where one person is watching one worker. The possibilities of group and team photography are somewhat wider. The number of observed workers per one observer in these cases is 15-20 people. In the context of the dynamic development of production, such coverage of workers does not meet modern requirements. All this requires the improvement of methods for studying working time.

The advantages of photography based on the method of momentary observations: simplicity, low labor intensity, the ability to study a large group of workers or equipment by one observer.

The disadvantages include obtaining averaged data on the time spent and an insufficiently complete picture of the causes of time losses. Using the method of momentary observations, the tasks of determining the degree of use of working time and equipment loading, studying the cost structure and establishing the specific weight and absolute values ​​of individual elements of working time costs are solved.

In contrast to the method discussed above, when carrying out momentary observations continuous registration of individual elements of the cost of working time is replaced by a selective one. Observations with this method are carried out as if by chance, so their number should be sufficient to get a reliable idea of ​​the state of the use of working time.

The method of momentary observations includes several stages.

At the preparatory stage, the goal is determined and the objects of observation are selected, the required number of detours is calculated, the observation route and the detour schedule are drawn up.

Number of rounds ( K obx) is determined by dividing the total number of observations ( M) by the number of people or pieces of equipment to be examined ( N).

The duration of one bypass is determined either by direct measurements or by calculation based on tables of microelement standards, where it is given that one step (600 mm) in time (/) takes 0.01 min.

The observation route must be chosen so that during it it would be possible to see all the observed workers or equipment in turn. It should be as short as possible and exclude idle transitions if possible.

When defining it, it is necessary to set fixing points, i.e. those places along the route of the observer, where the recording of what is happening at the workplace will be made. To establish the duration of the observations, a trial round is made along the planned route. Knowing this time and the number of rounds, determine the total time required for the observation. The main requirement of momentary observations is that the fixation of certain types of expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible. In this regard, it is very important to choose the right time for observations.

If it is known, for example, that the round trip time is 10 minutes, i.e. 6 rounds can be made in an hour, and if these 6 rounds are made in a row, then they will be repeated in a predetermined sequence every 10 minutes, which deprives the observation of the element of chance.

The observation considered in the example will rather refer to continuous rather than selective. Therefore, it is assumed in advance that 1-3 rounds should be carried out in one hour.

Then determine the start time of the bypass. To do this, it is recommended to use a table of random numbers compiled by lottery.

Having written out any of the columns of the table of random numbers (for example, 3, 4, 7, 8, 0, 1, 9), the first number is taken as the start time of the round (in our example, the third minute of the shift). The end time of the round is determined by summing the start time of the round and the duration of one round (7): 3 + T. To find the start time of the second round, a new random number is added to the end time of the first round (3 + T+ 4), etc. In this case, the bypass route remains constant.

All this complicates the preparation for momentary observations. Therefore, it is advisable to use simpler methods of research.

Thus, Polish scientists propose to carry out continuous detours along a permanent route. In connection with the loss of randomness with a rigid alternation of the moments of observation, the possibility of error in the results of the sample increases. In order to reduce it, a calculated number of observations is proposed ( M) multiply by the correction factor C according to the formula:

The correction factor C depending on the time interval between observations has the following values ​​(Table 7).

Correction factor values ​​for correcting the required number of moment observations

Table 7

Thus, the observance of the condition that the number of rounds in each hour of work is the same and the start times of rounds in the same hours of work on different days of observation do not coincide, provides the same possibility of observing all elements of the costs of working time. This condition is especially important to observe in those areas of production where the synchronism of operations takes place, the rhythm and tact of work are determined.

In production, where the relationship and interdependence between jobs does not obey a certain rhythm and tact and is random (for example, repair, mechanical, foundry and other shops), you can do without a table of the start of observation (bypasses). In this case, the observer can arbitrarily choose the start time of the round within a given hour, making only the intended number of rounds per hour per shift.

The observation technique is very simple. Sequentially moving from one workplace to another, the observer at each fixation point notes what he sees, without recording, at what point in time this state was noted and how long it lasted. This requires compliance with some rules:

• 1) each tour must begin exactly at the appointed time, determined by the tour schedule;
• 2) the detour must be carried out along the route with a uniform step, without accelerating or slowing down the walk;
• 3) the observer must record what is happening at the workplace when he is at the fixing point for these workers, and not from another place;
• 4) the volume of observations (the number of rounds) provided for per unit of time (hour, shift) should be strictly observed.

Having completed the entire volume of observations, the received data are processed, which begins with counting the number of moments for each observed element. Then the specific gravity (in percent) of each element is determined. Based on these data, the actual balance of working hours is compiled. Then, by percentage, taking them from the duration of the shift, a balance of time in minutes is drawn up.

Example. During the observation period, 200 man-moments were recorded, including by elements: main work -120 moments or (120: 200) x 100 = 60%: auxiliary work - 20 moments or (20: 200) x 100 = 10%, etc. .P.

After processing the received materials, the actual error of the results obtained is determined. If it turns out to be higher than the specified one, then an additional number of rounds should be carried out in accordance with the adjusted volume of observations, and then the processing of new data.

Self-photography method: the employee himself during a certain time fixes breaks in work, indicates their causes and proposes measures to eliminate them.

The main advantage of the self-photograph of the working day (SFRD) over other methods of studying the use of working time is that it allows you to get the richest variety of concrete proposals from employees to eliminate the causes of intra-shift downtime and improve labor organization.

The success of self-photography depends mainly on proper preparation for it. It is necessary to print forms of self-photography in advance, familiarize employees with the purpose of its implementation, as well as with the methods of keeping records on the observation sheet.

To find the desired value ( R) the formula is used:

where: TO- the actual workload obtained by processing the observation results.

The effectiveness and even the very possibility of mass self-photography is directly dependent on the level of general education and professional training of workers. Self-photography is an effective form of creative initiative of workers aimed at increasing labor productivity.

Self-photography of the working day (SFRD) plays an important role in solving issues of improving the organization and standardization of the work of employees.

The disadvantage of this method is that it fixes the loss of working time due to organizational and technical reasons, i.e. losses beyond the control of the worker.

On the day of the self-photography, there are usually no losses of working time due to the fault of the employee or the employee does not record them. In addition, correctly noting the cause of downtime, the employee cannot always determine how best to eliminate them.

However, despite the noted shortcomings, self-photography is a fairly effective and highly economical means of establishing the actual loss of working time. The mass coverage of workers by this method makes it possible to obtain reliable, representative material to substantiate conclusions about improving the organization of labor and production.

Self-photography can be done in two ways:

• 1) continuous monitoring is carried out by the employee in the form of a diary, in which he consistently records the work performed and the current completion time of each of them;
• 2) each employee is issued an observation sheet, in which a list of his main functions is pre-written. The employee must determine the actual time spent on each function and put their value on the observation sheet. If additional functions arise that are not provided for in the observation sheet, they should also be reflected in it. In order to comprehensively study and analyze the data obtained and, on this basis, improve the organization of labor, it is advisable to combine all types of photographs (working time, equipment use time, production process).

At the enterprises of the country, considerable experience has been accumulated in the use of various photographs of working time, and there is an extensive methodological literature. For a comprehensive identification of production reserves, it is important to conduct comprehensive and targeted photographs of working time. So, when taking a photograph of the production process, the costs of the working time of one or a group of workers, the use of equipment over time and the actual modes of its operation are simultaneously studied.

When conducting complex photography, different in content and purpose, but interconnected labor processes can be studied. For example, the study of the labor processes of the main and serving workers makes it possible to comprehensively address the issues of improving the organization of labor.

Target photographs are widely used in production. Most often they are used to identify shortcomings in the preparation of production, maintenance of jobs and labor discipline. So, when taking a photograph of the beginning and end of the shift, the observer captures the “start of work”, “end of work”, “leaving the workplace”. The duration of observation is only 30-60 minutes, but the data obtained allow us to develop a set of measures aimed at strengthening labor discipline.

An important place in the methodology for taking photographs of working time is occupied by the question of the required number of repeated observations - measurements. When taking photographs of a working day using the method of momentary observations, the calculation of the required number of observations is not difficult. However, in relation to other types of photographs (continuous and selective), the recommendations are of a general nature. So, according to the methodology of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of observations is limited to five. In cases where small requirements are imposed on the accuracy of the observation results, they can be less than five.

If a photograph of working time is taken for categories of industrial and production personnel performing the same functions daily, at least three observations must be made within a month - at the beginning, middle and end of the month.

For employees whose functions are heterogeneous and do not repeat daily, self-photography is recommended for a month. The data obtained during this time reliably characterize the composition of the functions of employees, the cost structure of their working time.

Of practical interest is the determination of the required number of photographs of working time based on the variability of the studied costs of working time and the probability of obtaining observation results within the established error (Table 8).

As can be seen, with a slight fluctuation of the studied costs of working time, it is necessary to conduct observations for at least 6-8 days. The most reliable data will be obtained if photography is taken three days a week (12 times a month).

Table 9

The time interval between rounds, taken with group photos of the working day (FRD)

TIMELINE AND ITS VARIETIES

ITiming- this is the study of operations by observing and studying the costs of working time for the implementation of individual, repeatedly repeated with the manufacture of each unit of production, elements of the operation.

As a rule, these are elements of operational time, mainly manual, preparatory-final and maintenance time of the workplace.

With timekeeping:

• establish time standards for individual operations in the conditions of mass and large-scale production and develop time standards;
• identify and study the best methods and techniques of work;
• study the reasons for non-compliance with established standards and clarify them;
• distribute the work among the workers of the brigade and determine its required composition.

Comparison of the results of timing by a group of workers performing the same operation makes it possible to identify best ways performing this operation, clearly show the workers the advantages and disadvantages in the implementation of each technique. This arouses the interest of workers in rationalizing production and saving time.

Timing object - a production operation performed by a worker or their group at a specific workplace.

Depending on the purpose of the study and the nature of the work performed, observation during timing can be continuous and selective. In practice, there are three methods of timing:

• 1) solid - by current time;
• 2) selective - on separate counts of time spent;
• 3) cyclic - by groups of techniques, actions and movements that have such a short duration that it is impossible to measure the time of their implementation separately.

According to the object of observation, timing can be:

• 1) individual, those. the time of work of one worker employed on one machine is measured;
• 2) brigade, when the time of work of a team engaged in the performance of a common technologically related work at one workplace is studied;
• 3) multitasking work.

In timekeeping, digital recording is most widely used. In some cases, graphic notation is supplemented with digital and index marks (combined notation). When conducting observations in order to identify the best, as well as unnecessary and irrationally performed actions and movements of the worker, photo, film, video and oscillographic recording are used.

Timekeeping in some cases can be carried out using various kinds of stopwatches. The counting of the results of measurements is made by the observer visually according to the indications of the stopwatch hand and is entered by him in the observation chart. In other cases, graphic devices such as chronographs and special photographic and film equipment are used. In this case, the observer is freed from counting and recording time readings, since the chronograph shows the total time for each element of the operation, the total number of measurements and gives a chronogram, which fixes the duration of individual costs, their sequence and overlaps in time.

Timing should be carried out after 50-60 minutes. after the start of work, i.e. at the end of the working period. It is also recommended to take measurements 1.5-2.0 hours before the end of work. Compliance with these conditions allows you to more accurately determine the labor costs of the worker or their group, since the observation covers shift periods with an average pace of work, which are determined by the curve of changes in working capacity. It is not advisable to conduct chronometric observations at the beginning and at the end of the shift. Observations on the first and last day of the working week should also be avoided.

When determining the time of chronometric observations, it is necessary to take into account not only changes in the pace of work of the same worker due to workability and fatigue, but also changes in the organizational and technical conditions of the production process. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct observations during the period when there are deviations from the organizational and technical conditions laid down in the development of norms or the organization of workplaces fully complies with scientific requirements.

The choice of the object of observation during timing is determined by the purpose of the study. To study and generalize the best experience, observations are carried out on the best workers. For these purposes, according to the method of engineer Kovalev, the best methods of work of other workers are used and analyzed. To fulfill and eliminate the causes bad work observations are made on lagging workers.

If observations are carried out to develop production standards (time), then average workers are selected as the object of observation. Such a choice is recommended to be made simply according to the data on the fulfillment of the working norms of output for the month. Workers who do not meet production standards are not taken into account. For the rest of the workers, the arithmetic mean level of compliance with the norms is calculated. The objects of observation are workers who have a level of compliance with the norms close to the arithmetic mean level. The disadvantage of this technique is the low accuracy of the result, therefore it is used for single and small-scale production, where, with reduced requirements for the accuracy of the norms, simplicity and efficiency of their development are necessary.

In stable production, it is more expedient to select workers with an average pace of work based on the data of preliminary momentary observations.

Preparation for timing observation, in addition to determining the purpose of timing and choosing the object of observation, includes the following points:

• the operation under study is divided into its constituent elements - complexes of techniques, techniques, actions. The degree of dissection depends on the purpose of observation and the type of production;
• after dividing the operation into constituent elements, their exact boundaries or fixing points are established. Fixing points- these are sharply expressed (by sound or visual perception) moments of the beginning and end of the execution of an element of the operation. For example, the touch of a hand on a tool, a part, a button, the sound of a blow when a part is put aside, etc. The correct choice of fixing points facilitates observation and allows you to more accurately determine the duration of the operation element;
• in order to obtain reliable results of timing, before it is carried out, the issue of the required number of measurements and observations is decided. Their number depends on the duration of the operation element, the type of production, as well as on the requirements for the accuracy of obtaining data.

which are usually given in works on technical regulation, are contradictory. In most cases, the number of timing measurements is set only depending on the duration of the operation. HELL. Galtsov and G.N. Cold is recommended to determine their number, taking into account the duration of the timed operation and the type of production. Using the methods of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of chronometric observations was determined depending on the duration of the elements of the operation and the types of work (manual, machine-manual, active observation). In addition to the duration of the normalized operation, the frequency of elements during the year is also taken into account.

The fluctuation in the number of measurements according to various sources reaches significant values. So, with the duration of the operation up to 1 min. it is recommended to carry out from 10 to 60 measurements (discrepancy by 6 times); up to 6 min. - from 10 to 30 (3 times); up to 10 min. - from 4 to 30 measurements. The presence of such significant differences in the choice of the number of timing measurements indicates the need to use mathematical methods in determining the scope of observations. The use of these methods is also supported by the fact that when determining the optimal number of observations, all authors proceed from the fact that the shorter the duration of the operation, the more observations should be; the greater the repeatability of the operation and the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the materials obtained, the greater the number of measurements should be taken.

Insufficient development of methods for determining the required number of timing observations leads to the fact that the number of observations is often chosen arbitrarily, and the values ​​of the factors under which timing observations are carried out, with the goal of developing standards, are random. As a result, the observational data do not accurately express the dependence of the time spent on the factors influencing them, which affects the quality of the norms and normative materials being developed. The Research Institute of Labor developed recommendations for determining the required number of timing observations. They are based on the theory of experiment planning. Determination of the number of observations according to this method includes the construction of observation plans and the calculation of the number of timing observations for each position of the plan. The construction of observation plans depends on the number of influencing factors in the form of time dependence on these factors. The selection of factors is made on the basis of a logical analysis of their impact on time costs, taking into account previous experience. The type of dependence of the time spent on the selected factors is not known in advance, but in the practice of normalization, a nonlinear dependence is most often encountered.

The timing observation plan is a matrix, the columns of which contain the values ​​of factors (their number is equal to the number of factors), and the rows (positions of the plan) are combinations of factors for which timing observations should be carried out.

Carrying out timing observations according to previously developed plans improves the quality of the developed time standards.

When planning chronometric observation at the stage of its preparation, it is necessary to take into account the level of change in the worker's working capacity during the day. So, measurements should not be taken during the period of working in and reducing efficiency, i.e. at times of low performance. Especially if the length of the measurement period is sufficiently short. The greatest objectivity of the results is achieved when conducting observations in the phase of stable performance.

When conducting chronometric observations, it is necessary to specifically record all changes in the organization and maintenance of workplaces, equipment operation modes, and the structure of production operations.

A detailed description of operations, equipment, tools and other data is entered into the chronocard before the start of observation. Carrying out this work allows you to establish whether the organizational and technical conditions for performing work at a given workplace correspond to the design ones, and to develop measures for the organization of labor in accordance with the requirements of the NOT (scientific organization of labor).

When preparing for timekeeping observation, the worker should also be familiarized with the purpose of the study and the procedure for conducting it.

The second stage of timing is observation. The observer, having taken a pre-selected place, determines the readings of the current time on the corresponding instruments and writes them down in the observation sheet of the chrono-map for all elements of the operation. He must catch fixing points, fill in the observation sheet, monitor the correctness of the operation. All stops due to the fault of the worker, malfunctions or errors of the observer must be reflected in the chronocard. For this, a section is specially distinguished in the observation sheet: defective measurements, their cause and duration.

The processing of the obtained results begins with the calculation of the duration of the operation elements by subtracting the current time of the previous element from the current time of this element.

After carrying out all the calculations, a series of values ​​for the duration of the elements of the operation is obtained, i.e. timing line. Their number corresponds to the number of elements into which the operation was divided.

In case of significant deviations from the duration of the elements in this time series, which are the result of erroneous (defective) measurements, the time series is cleared, i.e. identification and exclusion from further analysis of defective measurements.

The quality of the obtained materials is determined through the magnitude of fluctuations in the values ​​of the chronological order - the coefficient of stability of the chronological order (K ush) which shows the degree of fluctuation of the maximum duration of the operation element from the minimum. This coefficient is defined as the ratio of the maximum duration of the operation element (T tah) to the minimum (Tmin):

Comparing the actual values ​​of the stability coefficients for each time series with its standard values, the quality of timing is determined. If , then the time series is considered stable, and the observation is carried out qualitatively. If , then from the series it is necessary to exclude one or

both extreme values ​​(maximum or minimum), provided that they did not repeat during the observation more than once. Then the stability coefficient is calculated again and compared with the normative one. If the time series turns out to be unstable again, then the observation must be carried out again. The number of excluded values, including defective ones, should not exceed 15%. The normative coefficients of stability of the time series are characterized by the data given in Table. ten.

Table 10

Normative values ​​of the coefficients of stability of the chrono-series

Serial production at the workplace and duration	Normalized coefficient of stability of the time series for work
the element of work being studied, with	machine	machine-manual	manual
Bulk up to 3
Large series up to 3
Serial
Small-scale

Photochronometry. In single-piece and small-scale production, workers during a shift often perform a number of different jobs, either completely non-repetitive or repeating an insignificant number of times. This makes timing difficult. To study the cost of working time, in this case, combined observation is used, combining photography with timing. This type of observation and study of the cost of working time, called photochronometry, consists in the fact that in the process of photographing for a certain period of time, differentiated measurements are carried out according to the elements of operational time; throughout the rest of the observation time, the duration of the elements is fixed only in total.

With photochronometry, it is possible to use the method of continuous measurements and the method of selective measurements. Photochronometry can cover the work of one worker, a team of workers and a multi-machine operator. In this case, digital, graphic and combined recording is used. Processing of the results of observations in this case is carried out:

• when determining the execution time of the elements of the operation in the same way as with timing;
• when determining other costs - by the method used when processing these photographs of the working day.

The time of observation depends on the purposes of photo timing. Existing Methods chronometric observations, photo timing and photographs of the working day using stopwatches as a means of recording time at the present time can no longer fully meet the requirements of the organization and regulation of labor for a number of reasons:

• the very high labor intensity and the duration of the collection and processing of materials will not allow developing in a short time the norms of labor costs for new types of work, maintaining the necessary level of progressiveness of the norms;
• conducting a large number of chronometric observations has a psychologically negative effect on workers and in some cases leads to a decrease in the established pace of the operation;
• the insignificant duration of the performance of individual labor movements in the conditions of mass production is hardly recorded even by a highly qualified observer. When timing such elements, the subjective perception of the observer has a significant influence.

Compliance with the methods used to study the costs of the worker

time to modern production requirements requires the development of other approaches to study the cost of working time and the use of modern technical means of collecting initial information.

The use of working time is studied by observing the operation of equipment and all the actions of workers at the workplace, using the following methods:

timing;

photos of the working day;

photo timing;

method of moment observations.

Under timing is understood as the study of labor methods by observing and measuring the expenditure of working time on the performance of elements of a production operation that are repeated in the manufacture of each unit of output. Timing is carried out mainly in relation to repetitive elements of manual and machine-manual work related to operational or preparatory-final time.

The purpose of timekeeping is to establish advanced labor practices, identify the reasons for non-fulfillment of time standards, review time standards for individual operations, and design rational labor practices.

Timing consists of their stages: preparation for observation, observation, processing and analysis of the results.

Preparation for timekeeping observation consists in familiarization with the workplace and the operation. Prior to timing at the workplace, all organizational and technical problems must be eliminated. The normalized operation is divided into methods. The so-called "fixing points" are established along them, which help with the help of the senses (vision, hearing) to fix the moments of the end of one and the beginning of another reception.

The task of observation is to record the duration of the elements of operations in the observation sheet, as well as fixing all breaks and various deviations that occurred during the timing.

As a result of chronometric observations for each element of the operation, repeatedly recorded data on the duration of their execution are accumulated. This is how a time series is formed, which is subjected to analysis and statistical processing: defects in observations are excluded (minimum and maximum reception measurements); the actual coefficient of stability of the remaining time series is calculated, the arithmetic average time norm is calculated.

The stability factor of the time series can be determined by the formula:

K mouth \u003d T max / T min,

where K mouth -- coefficient of stability of the chrono-series; T poppy -- the maximum duration of this element of the operation; T min -- minimum duration execution of this element of the operation.

The actual stability factor is compared with the normative one. If it is less than or equal to the normative one, the time series is considered stable, and the observation itself is considered qualitative.

The average (normative) duration of the execution of each element of the operation (x), derived from the stable time series, is determined by the formula:

where? x - the sum of all values ​​of the duration of the execution of elements for a given stable chronological sequence; n is the number of qualitative observations taken after erroneous measurements were excluded from the time series.

The calculation of the norm of time, in addition to timing, can be carried out by other methods, for example, fashion, i.e., the most frequently occurring value in a series.

Rationalization of labor methods based on a combination of timing and microelement rationing (labor rationing based on the developed microelements of the labor process) is carried out by establishing the optimal composition, sequence, trajectory and combination of labor movements and actions; optimization of their implementation; exclusion of unnecessary methods and actions; maximum use of overlapping time; rational planning of workplaces; establishing a physiologically optimal pace of labor, providing minimum time performance of work and the load on the body of the worker.

Designed rational movements, actions and techniques for each element and operations as a whole with the time standards for their implementation are included in the cards of methods and methods of work, instructive and technological cards and communicated to all employees through industrial and technical training, production briefing and other methods.

Under working day photo is understood as the establishment of the structure of the cost of working time by observing and measuring all the time spent throughout the full working day, work shift or a certain part of it.

The purpose of a working day photo is:

* identification of all the time spent during the working day and, on this basis, drawing up the actual balance of the employee's working day;

identification of the causes of losses and unproductive costs of working time and, on this basis, the development of organizational and technical measures to eliminate losses;

drawing up a normal balance of working hours, which provides for improving the use of the working day by eliminating or reducing losses in accordance with the developed plan of organizational technical measures;

obtaining initial data for the regulation of certain categories of working time (preparatory-final, main, etc.);

determination of the number of workers required to service individual units;

determination of the number of pieces of equipment serviced by one worker.

Individual a photograph of a working day is used in cases where it is necessary to study the costs of working time of one specific object (employee, piece of equipment).

group photography is used in the study of the cost of working time of several objects (teams of workers, equipment).

Route photography is used to study the cost of working time of objects united by the work performed, but located at a distance from each other, at different production sites, or when the object and the observer are moving along a certain path.

self photography working time is used to improve the use of working time by involving the employees themselves in active participation in identifying, analyzing the causes and eliminating the loss of working time. Self-photography is carried out by the employee himself, fixing in a special card the amount of loss of working time, indicating their reasons.

According to the technique of conducting observations, there are:

a continuous photograph of the working day, when time measurements are taken continuously throughout the day;

a discontinuous photograph of the working day, in which time measurements are taken at certain intervals. This observation technique is used when taking a photograph of the working day of workers who do not have a permanent job, for example, transport workers serving workers.

An individual photograph of the working day, as well as timing, is carried out in three stages.

Preparation for observations consists in a thorough acquaintance with the production operations that the employee performs, with working conditions, with the production environment (equipment, tooling, methods of providing materials, tools, setting up equipment, etc.).

Observations are carried out for a set time, usually shifts. In the observation sheet, the elements of the time spent and the current end time of each element are recorded in accordance with the accepted classification.

The level of detail in the records depends on the purpose of the photograph and the type of production. So, if it is necessary to obtain data for normalizing the costs of preparatory and final time, a detailed record of each element of the time costs for this category is necessary. In a small-scale, one-off production environment, less detail is allowed than in a mass and large-scale production environment, where a more accurate analysis of time costs is needed. But all interruptions in work are always recorded in the most detailed way, indicating their reasons.

Processing of the received results includes:

calculation in the observation sheet of the duration of each element of the cost of working time;

filling in a special sample form of a summary of the time spent by categories of all costs and, on this basis, the development of the actual balance of the working day;

analysis of the time spent with the development of organizational technical measures to eliminate (reduce) unnecessary time costs;

designing a new normal balance of the working day, which provides for the compaction of the working day, as a result of which the productivity of the worker increases.

The possible growth of labor productivity (WP t) as a result of the rationalization of the balance of working time is determined by the formula

VP t \u003d 100 x (V nb - V fb) / V fb,

where In nb and In fb - operational time according to the normal and actual balance of working hours.

Photochronometry serves to simultaneously determine the structure of the cost of working time and the duration of the elements of the operation in the case when, simultaneously with a photograph of the working day, it is necessary to conduct timing in separate periods of time.

If you need to get the time cost structure for many jobs at once, for example, for a workshop area or even several areas, use momentary method, based on the application of probability theory and mathematical statistics to the study of the cost of working time.

The method of momentary observations is a statistical method for obtaining average data on the actual workload of workers and equipment; it is used to study the expenditure of working time by workers and the extent to which they use the equipment by the time it works. With the help of momentary observations, the loss of working time by employees, managers and specialists is also studied.

Momentary observations are carried out in the process of bypass. The normalizer, following a certain route, fixes in the observation sheet with a point, line or index what is happening at a given workplace at the time of his visit. Before the start of observations, the front side of the observation sheet is filled out. Here it is written: the volume of observations; the number of detours, the route of detours, the start time of detours, the list of working time costs to be investigated. In addition, the time for one round is determined, fixing points are outlined, upon reaching which the observer makes an appropriate note on the observation sheet. The reliability of the obtained data completely depends, first of all, on the number of measurements (observations).

In mass production, they are satisfied with the confidence level of the expected result, equal to 0.84. In this case, the formula is used to determine the number of measurements

H s \u003d 2 (1 - K n) 100 2 / K n * m 2,

where N s -- the number of measurements (observations); 2 - coefficient characterizing the level of probability of finding an observation error within the given limits (2 - for mass, large-scale production and 3 - for small-scale and single); K n -- share of equipment operation time (load factor of equipment or worker); m -- permissible value of the relative error of the results of observations (taken within 3--10% of the value).

For small-scale and single-piece production, which is characterized by unstable conditions of the production process, the confidence level is assumed to be 0.92; the number of measurements is determined by the formula:

H s \u003d 3 (1 - K n) 100 2 / K n * m 2.

High reliability of the results of observations is ensured if the requirements of randomness and independence of the observations are observed. Compliance with these conditions is achieved by using the lottery method when determining the start time of the bypass or tables of random numbers.

When a worker sequentially walks around all the objects located on the site, the state of each of them is recorded at the moment when the worker passes by him. All marks are recorded on the observation sheet.

The overall result of shift observation is determined by counting the number of marks (fixing moments) for each machine or workplace.

Based on the method of momentary observations for the entire group of machines (jobs), the cost structure of all working time, the nature and proportion of time losses, the degree of equipment use, the magnitude and nature of its downtime, and the employment rates of workers can be determined.

Example. Momentary observations were carried out in the workshop at 20 workplaces of machine operators. The accepted coefficient of their loading was equal to 0.8, and the possible error in the results of observations was ±4%. Hence, the required volume of observations was 312 man-moments:

M \u003d 2 (1-0.8) 100 2 / 0.8 * 4 2 \u003d 312

To fix 312 man-moments, the observer had to make 16 rounds (312: 20). After making 16 rounds, the observer recorded idle workers for various reasons in 50 cases or 16%. Thus, the actual load factor was 84%. Consequently, 84% of working time was used for useful work, and 16% were time losses that occurred due to the reasons indicated in the observation sheet. If momentary observations were carried out during an eight-hour work shift, then the loss of time for one worker averaged 76.8 minutes, and for all workers - 25.6 man-hours (76.8 * 20: 60). To eliminate the identified losses of working time, an action plan is drawn up, the implementation of which will increase labor productivity by an average of 13.1% (25.6*100/8*20*0.82). Here 0.82 is the coefficient of operational time costs.

rationing labor time accounting

MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

IRKUTSK STATE ACADEMY OF ECONOMY

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY OF LABOR

Course work

"Methods for studying the cost of working time."

Completed by: student of group ZT-96

Kuznetsova S.A.

Checked:

Gandina N.M.

Significance of the study of the cost of working time...............3

Classification of working hours .......................................5

Classification of methods and ways of studying the costs of working time .............................................. ................................................9

The main stages of observation and data processing.13

Timing ............................................... ...............................................16

Photograph of working hours ..........................................................27

Group FRV. .................................................................................. 32

momentary observations. ......................................................... 33

Self-photography. ........................................................................... 37

Photochronometry .............................................................. ......................40

Conclusion................................................. .........................................42

Bibliography................................................ .........................43

The main stages of observation and data processing.

Regardless of the method and type, all observations consist of four stages:

1. preparation for observation: setting the goal of observation, choosing the object of observation, choosing the subject based on the purpose of observation, familiarization with the organizational and technical conditions of work and working conditions at the selected objects, filling out observation sheets and checking technical means for measuring time or registering processes, as well as explaining to the performers of the work under study , goals and objectives of observation;

2. observation: fixing the sequence of elements of the work performed, identifying the compliance of the actual operating modes of the equipment with the recommended technologies, determining the duration of breaks and their causes, filling out observational documentation;

3. processing of observation results: deciphering and checking the correctness of fixation, when filming - developing materials, calculating the duration of each of the elements of the work performed and the duration of each of them, determining the duration of breaks and their reasons, filling out observational documentation;

4. The final stage: analysis of materials, identification of opportunities for streamlining processes, development of measures to eliminate disruptions in work, proposals for improving workplaces.

The processing of the obtained data is a rather laborious process, especially when the observations are carried out by the method of direct measurements. It is exacerbated by the need to assess the quality of observations. It follows from this that the complexity of processing is determined by the type of observations, the accuracy of time measurements and the form of data recording.

According to the form of recording the results of observation, digital, index, graphic, combined methods and filming are distinguished.

At digitally the record of the current work execution time is made in numbers. If you need high accuracy of the observation results, this method is preferable.

Index method implies the recording of data by previously known conditional abbreviations (indices). It is used for group or team photography. However, it is necessary that the objects of observation be homogeneous (workers of the same profession, performing work of the same composition).

In the case when digital and index are inconvenient, it is used graphic way. Its essence is that the amount of time spent is fixed in the form of straight horizontal lines, the length of which, on a certain scale, corresponds to the amount of time spent on a particular action. The graphical method gives a visual representation of the duration and alternation of certain types of work, however, if the number of workers exceeds 6, then the quality of registration of actions is sharply reduced.

Combined entry- this is a combination of digital and graphic recording, in which segments of horizontal lines are applied in the observation sheet, and a digital designation is placed above them.

However, a detailed study of labor methods by these methods is difficult, and sometimes impossible, because. the observer does not have time in the short periods of time during which some actions take place, to follow the readings of the instruments, while simultaneously recording their readings on the form.

In this case it helps filming, because it allows you to accurately capture the labor process, and when playing back, view some details in slow motion. This type of recording is used when choosing the most rational methods of observation. However, filming is very laborious and costly compared to visual observations. A large amount of time is spent on preparing the equipment, processing the film, deciphering the footage. High material costs are due to the high cost of filming and auxiliary equipment, film, equipment for viewing and deciphering the footage. Therefore, it is expedient to use filming with repeated use of materials generalized and developed on its basis.

Modern means of studying labor processes include video magnetic recording. Its advantages are:

1.High level remote control

2. the presence of a synchronous sound signal (for explanations of time signals)

3. no need to process the film, use appropriate equipment and a special room

4. playback capabilities immediately after the end of the recording

5. the possibility of synchronous demonstration on several screens at once

6. the ability to play multiple takes on one screen

7. the possibility of computer processing of the recording, which in particular facilitates the editing process.

Timing

Timing- this is the study and measurement of individual, cyclically repeating elements of the operation, individual elements of the operation.

It is carried out, as a rule, at works that are characterized by frequent repetition and constancy of the degree of influence of factors on the time of their implementation. The main task of timing is to identify factors that affect the duration of each element of the operation under study in order to design its rational structure as a whole and the normal duration of its individual elements.

With the help of timing, only the actions that are part of the operational work are determined, because. of all types of productive work, only this is cyclically repeated.

Although the duration of operations studied in the course of timing is not theoretically limited by limit values, it is not advisable to use it to observe an operation of a long duration. Such data is accumulated by means of a photograph of a working day, which we will consider below. It is most appropriate to use this method to study short-term operations that cannot be measured in the process of photographing a working day.

Timing is divided into individual and group (brigade) depending on the number of observed workers.

By using individual timing determine the time spent by individual performers, which allows you to study the work with the maximum degree of detail.

At group timing one observer studies the work of a group of workers performing one production operation. It is used to study the composition of the group and the rational distribution of work among the workers in it. To achieve greater accuracy, two timekeepers are placed to observe independently of each other, and at the end of the work, the data obtained by each of the observers are verified.

Chronometric observations of all varieties are carried out only by the method of direct measurements of time.

Time studies are distinguished by the completeness of coverage of the elements of operational work, as well as by the method of fixing time. Based on these features, continuous and selective timing are distinguished.

With continuous timing, continuous study and measurements of the duration of all elements of the operation in their technological sequence are carried out.

With selective timing, the duration of not all operational work, but only its individual elements, is studied and measured.

Since during timing they encounter unevenness in work, it should be determined at what number of cycles the deviations will be mutually canceled. It is obvious that one cannot limit oneself to a small number of observations, since the results may be random, however, starting from a certain number, the increase does little to increase the degree of reliability, while increasing the complexity of observation in direct proportion.

There are several most used methods for determining the number of observations:

1. The number of measurements is determined by calculation, using mathematical methods, according to statistical tables. For example, according to the methodology of the Leningrad Financial and Economic Institute, it is proposed to determine the required number of measurements during timing according to the formula:

The value of E is found by the formula:

where Z is the cost per hour for the wages of the worker who is the object of timekeeping; C 1 - the cost of obtaining one element of the time series.

2. The number of measurements during timing is set depending on the required accuracy of the norms as a percentage of the normative coefficient of stability of the chrono-series (Table 1).

3. The number of observations is set depending on the type of production and the duration of operations (Table 2).

4. The number of necessary measurements is determined depending on the duration of the operation under study, the nature of the work and the participation of the performer in it (Table 3).

5. The number of necessary observations for each selected element depends on the type of production, the duration of the work performed manually and the total duration (Table 4).

Table 1 . Required number of observations during timing.

Table 2. Approximate number of observations (at least)

Table 3 . Number of Observations Required for Timing

Table 4 Required number of observations during timing and allowable stability factors for timing series 1.

Type of production	The duration of the elements of the operation, s.	Permissible stability coefficient of the time series K y		Number of measurements
				For machine work			For manual work
				Observation accuracy, %
		Machine work	Handmade
Mass large-scale Serial Small-scale

There are also no unified recommendations for determining the required number of observations in the practice of foreign enterprises. So at the enterprises of the company "General Electric" (USA) it is considered necessary to make the number of observations dependent on the duration of the operation.

Table 5 Dependence of the number of observations on the duration of operations

Another company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, takes into account not only the duration of elements and operations, but also their repeatability during the year.

Table 6 The influence of the duration of operations and their frequency during the year on the number of measurements

Number of operations per year

The number of measurements with the duration of operations, min.

Preparation for it significantly affects the quality of timekeeping. Determining the content, scope and timing preparatory work, the choice of objects of research, proceed from the goals of timing. Its main goal is to obtain scientifically based materials that allow for the rationalization of production, increase the efficiency and content of labor. Subgoals include:

1. accumulation of data on the duration of individual elements of the operation in order to use them for the subsequent development of time standards, the calculation of reasonable standards in the absence of standards or their insufficient completeness;

2. adjustment of existing and establishment of new standards in large-scale and mass production, assessment of the time spent on performing an operation in terms of their rationality and expediency;

3. studying the achievements of innovators in production, selecting the best methods of work before designing rational labor processes based on them;

4. identification of irrational, unnecessary methods to determine the optimal composition and sequence of elements of the operation;

5. assessment of organizational and technical conditions and their impact on the time spent in the performance of individual elements of the operation.

When choosing objects, it should be borne in mind that they must have a certain generality and comparability.

In all cases, except when it is used to identify the causes of non-compliance, the workplace should be carefully prepared in terms of equipment, order, lighting and work safety.

Having chosen the object of observation, compose detailed description the operation under study. Special place in the description is the organization and maintenance of the workplace. You should carefully understand the layout of the workplace, the location of the tool, and the supply of the workplace with everything necessary for work.

The operation under study is divided into constituent elements. The degree of division of the operation depends on the type of production, the purpose of the observation, the design of the measuring device, the method of measurement, and the qualifications of the observer.

To correctly determine the duration of each element of the operation for each measurement, they are clearly delimited by fixing points.

Fixpoints are distinct external signs that determine the start and end points of each of the measured elements of the operation.

If continuous observation is carried out, the final fixing point of the previous element is at the same time the starting point for the next one.

Let's consider the measurement of time spent and the analysis of its results on the example of the timing of the operational time of the cashier's work.

Chronocard.

Watchlist.

Operation element

Fixpoints (Endpoints)

T is the current time; P - the duration of the element

observation number

The sum of the duration and number of measurements

Time series stability factor

Average element duration, min

Observation time, min.

Actual

Normative

Issue a pay slip

Separation of the hand from the seal

Separation of the hand from the money

Break a check

End of cash tape movement

Attach check to invoice

Separation of a hand from a check

Separation of the hand from the money

Submit change and receipt

Separation of the hand from the receipt and change

Register a credit note in a notebook

Separating a pen from a notebook

The stability coefficient, which characterizes the degree of fluctuations in the chronological series, is calculated by the formula:

where t max is the maximum duration of the operation element, and t min is the minimum.

We determine the normative coefficients according to the table:

Table 7 Normative values ​​of the coefficients of stability of the chrono-series

In our case, all coefficients do not exceed the standard, therefore, the observation was carried out qualitatively

The average duration of each element of the operation is determined as the arithmetic mean of all valid measurements of the time series.

Time series processing methods cannot be uniform and constant for all industries and in all cases. In each industry, the most appropriate method can be adopted, depending on the nature and conditions of work.

Timing studies make it possible to study, first of all, operational time, and therefore, when using timing to establish standards, one has to use normative materials and materials from photographs of the working day.

In addition, timing has a number of disadvantages:

1. The labor rate in the traditional order of timing is based on the average actual expenditure of working time by those performers whose workplaces were the objects of observation. Therefore, the reliability of the obtained materials also depends on the correct choice of the latter.

2. The method of labor is not fully fixed in the course of research, although it is he who determines the time and quality of work.

3. Fixing the real time of performing techniques, the researcher cannot claim that this level is comprehensively justified, because the rater determines the achieved level of productivity, which does not at all mean the productivity possible under the given conditions at each workplace with an average (normative) level of performers' abilities.

4. Because the norm of time is set according to only one criterion - according to the total duration of the execution of the elements of the labor process, then the data obtained through timing will always be more or less subjective.

5. Chronometric data on the time spent on performing individual operations usually contain time losses associated with shortcomings in the organization of labor. To identify them, you need to design a rational labor process.

6. A normative study can be carried out only after the start of production and the full mastery of the work operations.

7. It is almost impossible to avoid errors when measuring individual actions, especially in short-term operations. It is also difficult to compare timing data for the same operations that were obtained at different enterprises, in different production conditions and at different times. To some extent, these shortcomings can be reduced if more accurate methods of studying labor processes are used.

Photo of working time.

Working time photo- this is a type of observation, with the help of which they study and analyze the time spent by one worker or group associated with the implementation of a particular process throughout the entire working day (shift) or part of it, regardless of what this time was spent on. The PDF does not reveal the technology and methods of the process, but only fixes its flow.

The purpose of the PDF is to identify reserves for increasing productivity, improving the use of equipment. This is achieved by identifying the expediency, the sequence of certain time costs, their measurement, establishing the degree of possible compaction of the working day of performers, eliminating the loss of working time and equipment downtime.

The purpose of working time photography is to identify deficiencies in the organization of labor and production, causing losses or irrational use of working time, designing a more rational distribution of work shift time by time consumption categories, determining the actual production of products, the rate of its release and uniformity of work during the shift.

With the skillful, wide and systematic application of the FRV, the head of the enterprise will always have a clear idea of ​​the work and downtime of workers and equipment, of the reasons for the loss of working time.

By the number of objects of observation, forms of labor organization, etc. FRs are subdivided into individual, group, brigade, mass, route, multi-machine, target, photo of the production process and photo of equipment use(See Diagram 2). A distinction is also made between dubbed and picket photographs of a working day.

duplicated A photograph of a working day is taken by two workers at the same time. This method is used when the visibility of the object of observation is limited. The observers work independently of each other, and at the end of the work they compare the results to get the big picture.

Picket A photograph of a working day is taken by several observers who are located at certain points and record the moment the observed object passes through this point. This method is most often used in the study of the operation of transport, because. according to the security rules, the observer cannot move along with the transport all the time. In the course of an individual PDF, the observer examines the time spent by one performer working at one workplace or the time spent using equipment during a work shift or part of it.

Let's consider an example: FRV of a sales manager of a commercial firm.

Date of observation: 03/20/1999

Start of observation: 8 hours 30 minutes

End of observation: 17:30

Work: customer service, work with suppliers, sales analysis

Working conditions: normal

Sales manager: Novgorodtsev A.A.

Age: 28 years old.

Work experience: 4 years

Work experience: 2 years.

Attitude towards work: conscientious

Observer Kuznetsova S.A.

	Name of working hours	Current time in hours and minutes	Duration (min)
	Arrival at the workplace
	Workplace preparation
	Customer Service
	Receipt and familiarization with email
	Obtaining a list of paid invoices from the accounting department, familiarization with it
	Checking the availability of paid goods in stock
	Customer Service
	personal care
	Placing orders to suppliers
	Customer service
	Discussion of the order with suppliers by phone
	Customer service
	Customer service
	personal care
	Conversation with a colleague on a personal topic
	Customer service
	Making a plan for the next day
	Turn off the computer, clean up the workplace
	Leaving work

PZ=5+15+3+2=25

OP=20+30+20+10+25+75+5+85+120+18+10=418

OLN=5+60+5+5=75

First of all, let's analyze how efficiently working time is used. To do this, we use the formula for the actual utilization of working time:

Consider the load factor this employee, which is determined by the formula:

The actual load factor is 82%.

2) losses depending on the worker:

Consequently, due to the improvement of discipline, labor productivity will increase by 4%.

by eliminating unproductive work and all losses of working time:

Group FRV.

Group called a photograph of working time, in which one observer simultaneously studies the work of several performers.

Preparation for observation differs from individual photography in only a few ways:

1. Set in advance and write down on the front side of the photo card the conditional abbreviations for the time spent.

2. Pre-select intervals of time records, which are noted in the observation sheet.

3. Establish a sequence for monitoring jobs.

Group photo features:

1. The observer determines in advance the types of costs and losses to be studied, since he cannot continuously record all the time spent at each location.

2. The observation time is divided into intervals. The accuracy of the results will directly depend on the size of the intervals.

3. To facilitate the entry in the observation sheet, the costs are indicated by easily remembered numerical or alphabetic designations.

In terms of completeness, detail and accuracy, group photography is significantly inferior to individual photography, however, the advantages of group photography include the possibility of simultaneous coverage of large groups of workers by one observer, as well as ease of recording and processing, which leads to a reduction in labor intensity.

momentary observations.

Since the method of direct measurements requires large expenditures for their implementation, in the case when it is supposed to cover a large number of objects, the so-called momentary observations are appropriate.

characteristic feature method of momentary observations is that the observer is not continuously at the workplace, but visits them periodically at random intervals. With the help of momentary observations, it is possible to analyze the structure of working time at almost any number of objects.

Observations are carried out by sequentially bypassing the selected workplaces and marking the type of activity at the fixing points with conventional signs in the observation sheet. If there are special moment counters, the observation sheet is not used.

According to the results of momentary observations, you can:

1. Determine the degree of use of working time by a large number of performers and the degree of use of a large number of equipment in time.

2. To study the structure and establish the specific gravity and absolute values ​​of individual elements of the costs of the contractor's working time.

3. Establish the causes and determine the proportion and absolute values ​​of downtime for workers and equipment and develop measures to eliminate them.

4. Analyze the state of labor organization and develop measures to improve them.

5. Obtain the necessary initial data for the development of standards for the preparatory and final time, the time for servicing the workplace, as well as service standards.

To ensure the reliability of the results obtained, which should reflect the actual use of working time, the following conditions must be observed:

observations of certain expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible;

the number of observations should be large enough to reliably characterize the observed phenomenon as a whole.

The volume of observations is determined using the rules of statistics for sample surveys. It is found by the formula:

where M is the sample size or the number of momentary observations, K is the approximate share of working time spent on the performance of the work under study or the approximate share of equipment operation time in fractions of a second (its value is taken from the results of previous observations or is taken approximately on the basis of reporting data), (1-K) - the proportion of breaks or downtime, i.e. the probability of finding a worker or a machine inactive, P is the predetermined accuracy of the observation results, i.e. the allowable value of the relative error of the results of observation (in the practice of studying working time, it is taken in the range of 0.03 - 0.1), a is the coefficient associated with the confidence probability of the error P not exceeding the established limits.

and unstable production:

There are also ready-made tables that allow you to quickly determine the required number of observations.

The duration of one round can be set by the timing method or determined by the formula:

The number of moments M 1 fixed in one shift is determined by the formula:

where K is a coefficient that takes into account the discrepancy between the bypass times (taken within 0.5-0.7), Tobx is the duration of one bypass.

To obtain objective and accurate results, you must adhere to the following rules:

1. Each detour must be carried out along the intended route, in a uniform step, without accelerating or slowing down the walk, and begin strictly at the appointed time.

2. Only being in the fixing point for these workers, the observer can register what is happening at the workplace. Even if the observer, being at one point, sees that the worker is idle at another point, he has no right to make a mark until he arrives at that point.

3. If at the moment the observer approaches the object of observation, one state of activity has ended and another begins, then the first state should always be recorded in the observation chart.

The results of momentary observations serve as the basis for the development of measures to eliminate the loss of working time. For their implementation, a plan is drawn up, which indicates the timing of its implementation and those responsible for carrying out the activities. The results of the analysis and the activities developed on its basis are discussed at production meetings.

Thus, the method of instantaneous observations gives very reliable material at a much lower labor input.

Self-photography.

The method of studying labor processes, in which the performers themselves record the duration and reasons for the loss of working time on special forms, is called self-photography.

Self-photography may be due to various circumstances.

First of all, the successful and comprehensive implementation of NAT requires the involvement of all workers, because involving them in the study of the labor process provides an inexhaustible source for improving the organization of labor and production.

The conclusions drawn on the basis of a photograph of a working day may turn out to be characteristic only of the observed object and the corresponding time interval. To obtain generalized conclusions about the state of the organization of labor and production, an objective idea of ​​the use of working time, it is necessary to cover at least half of the working section, department, workshop with a photograph of the working day. The study of working time will be effective only if it is carried out systematically and covers a large group of workers and if the workers themselves take an active part in it. It is the workers who can suggest what exactly causes the loss of time, what reserves of labor productivity growth are at a given workplace.

Although self-photography characterizes the loss of working time due to organizational and technical reasons no less objectively than the FS, it does not give an idea of ​​the loss of working time due to the fault of the performer himself. Therefore, along with self-photography, it is also necessary to carry out PDF.

Self-photography is divided into individual, group and brigade.

The most common is individual self-photography, with the help of which they study the loss of working time from one performer. With the help of group self-photography, they study the loss of working time for performers serving one unit. Less common is brigade self-photography. Unlike individual and group self-photography, not all of its members, but one person, record the loss of working time in a brigade. The map of the brigade self-photo shows not only the loss of working time, their cause and duration, but also how many people from the brigade were idle at the same time.

Depending on the object of study, a self-photograph of the working hours of workers and working hours of employees is distinguished.

Employees consistently take into account all the costs of working time throughout the working day, especially those that are not related to their immediate duties. This is due to the fact that the labor process of employees has hidden phases that can only be revealed by participating in the study of the performer himself.

When preparing for self-photography, the areas where losses and unproductive costs are the highest are most often chosen as the object of observation. The following procedure for taking self-photographs is recommended. By order of the enterprise (or its division), they approve the dates for the self-photography and designate those responsible for its preparation. Then they make a list of performers who will be engaged in self-photography, distribute them into groups of 30-40 people, each of which is assigned instructors from among specialists.

A few days before the appointed date, instructors are given lists of participants for self-photography and observation sheets. On the eve of self-photography, instructors distribute forms and explain in detail the purpose, tasks and technique of observations.

On the day of the self-photography, the instructors periodically help the members of their group to correctly and promptly keep records of data on breaks in work, and after the end of the observation, to formulate and formalize proposals for improving the organization of work. Then the instructors collect the completed cards and hand them over to the administration of the enterprise.

Based on the proposals of the self-photographers, a draft action plan is drawn up to improve the organization of work and the maintenance of workplaces.

Photochronometry.

By means of timing, working time is studied when, for organizational and technical reasons or in connection with special rules production work timing is not possible.

Photochronometry is a combined method of studying working time, based on the combination of timekeeping and photography of working time. Its essence is that the photograph of working time in certain periods of time is supplemented by timekeeping.

A significant advantage over separate timekeeping and FRV is that for the same period of time it is possible to obtain data on the advisability of using shift time, and on the structure of operational time and the rationality of techniques when performing the main work.

This method is of particular importance when studying the time of performers employed during a shift in several types of work, characterized by cyclical repetition, when it is impossible to set the time and sequence of their performance in advance.

Depending on the objectives of the observation, the number of observed objects, the number of observers and the nature of the production process, individual, group, duplicated and complex photo timing are distinguished.

Individual photo timing, which studies the work of one performer, is used when increased accuracy of time measurements and a greater degree of detail in the workflow are required.

The main purpose of group photo timing is to study the coherence of the work of the team members, the degree of their workload, the organization of work, identify the causes and duration of lost working time, and explore other issues that do not require accurate time measurements.

Duplicated supervision means that two timekeepers simultaneously observe the work process. In this case, both observers can work independently or one of them fixes the time, and the other describes the working methods.

Comprehensive observations make it possible to identify the relationship of individual production processes, to study the production rhythm of work, to determine the degree rational use machines, to develop specific measures to improve work and increase labor productivity. With this type of observation, a group of observers studies the work of a team, workshop, department or enterprise as a whole, allowing them to cover the entire set of production processes or a significant part of them.

Conclusion.

All methods used to study the cost of working time are interconnected and complement each other. Depending on the purpose of the study, preference is given to one or another type.

Application of a photograph of working time throughout the shift when manual work will help to improve the organization of work and increase its productivity through the efficient use of the entire fund of time.

When studying machine-manual work, photographs of working time and photo timing give good results.

The most efficient in machine and automated production is the use of oscillography, photography and filming.

At any enterprise, regardless of the form of ownership, the efficiency of the production process is of great importance, i.e. its implementation with the least expenditure of working time and equipment. The main condition for the rationalization of the production process is the systematic study of the cost of working time and the use of observational materials. On their basis, conclusions are drawn about the presence of "bottlenecks" in the enterprise, about the causes and extent of the loss of working time, and they plan measures to improve labor and production.

Improving the labor process involves a rational combination in time of all elements of labor, as well as establishing the relationship of participants in production.

Bibliography.

1. Gandina N.M. Economics and labor rationing: Textbook. I.: Izd-vo IGEA, 1994.

2. Genkin B.M., Petrochenko P.F., Bukhalkov M.I. etc. Under. Ed. B.M. Genkin. Regulation of labor. - M.: Economics, 1985.

3. Nazarov A.Sh. Regulation of labor. - T .: Ukituvchi, 1987.

4. Nikitin A.V. Collection of tasks on the economy, organization and regulation of labor in industry. - M.: Economics, 1990.

5. Razumov I.M., Smirnov S.V., Glagoleva L.A. Scientific organization of labor in mechanical engineering. – M.: graduate School, 1978.

6. Cold G.N. Regulation of labor in industry. - M.: Economics, 1978.

Cold G.N. Regulation of labor in industry. - M.: Economics. 1978, p.63.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

The essence of the method is an analytical approach to the study of technological and labor processes on the basis of dividing them into constituent typical elements and measuring labor costs by taking photographs of working time, timing, photo - timing, momentary observations or experiments.

It is recommended to use the analytical and research method of studying the costs of working time with the simultaneous design of their optimal values ​​in the work on organizing and rationing labor in the context of an increasing role of economic factors in the production of material goods, profits and their distribution.

Working time costs are classified:

• * in relation to the employee;
• * in relation to the production process in order to determine the content and nature of the costs of working time in the performance of a given work;
• * in relation to means;

In relation to the employee, working time is classified into the time of employment with the performance of a given work and to the time of breaks in work. The time of employment with the performance of work is divided into preparatory and final time, operational time, organizational and maintenance time, transition time for multi-machine maintenance, time for monitoring the progress of the production process, and equipment operation. It is necessary to record the time spent on the performance of a given work and random, unforeseen by the production task.

The time of breaks in work is classified into breaks regulated for rest and personal needs, for organizational and technical reasons, and unregulated, as a rule, caused by a violation of the normal course of the production process or a violation of labor discipline.

The classification of working time costs in relation to the production process is used in the analysis not of the types of labor costs of the employee during the work shift, but of the types of work for which the executor of the production task spends working time.

The time of use of the equipment consists of periods of its operation and interruptions in work caused by various reasons of an organizational and technical nature, as well as those associated with a violation of the labor discipline of employees.

The classification of labor costs in relation to equipment allows you to identify the reasons for its downtime or inefficient use in terms of productivity.

Indices (letter designations) of groups and categories of working time costs, adopted in the main methodological provisions on labor rationing, are given below.

Name of groups and categories of working time costs	Conventions (indices)
Working hours for the production task Preparatory and closing time operational time regular time Auxiliary time Workplace service time Organizational service time Maintenance time Downtime Break time Time of regulated breaks for rest and personal needs Time of breaks established by technology and organization of the production process Time of interruptions caused by disruption of the normal course of the production process Time of breaks caused by violation of labor discipline Active Surveillance Passive observation

The main research methods are photography of the use of working time, and its varieties (individual, group, team, multi-machine work, work time and equipment downtime, production process in time), timing and photo - timing. Each method corresponds to the form of documentation, records of analyzed elements, etc.

Observations are carried out, as a rule, in one of two ways, namely: by directly measuring the duration of each element of work or breaks in work (min., sec); fixing the number of cases of repetition of certain types of expenditure of working time in a certain interval (predetermined) or by the method of momentary observations at random time intervals.

The direct measurement of time allows for the most complete study of labor processes and the use of equipment. At the same time, this method is laborious and does not make it possible for one researcher to conduct observations simultaneously over a group of workers or equipment.

The method of momentary observations allows you to register and take into account during the observation period the same costs of working time of a group of performers or the time of work and breaks in the operation of a different number of equipment and, on this basis, determine specific gravity and absolute values ​​of time costs. The method is characterized by low labor intensity and simplicity of conducting observations and processing the results obtained, the efficiency of the study, a wide coverage of various objects by observation, as well as the involvement of engineering and technical personnel in the studies while simultaneously performing their main work, etc. The disadvantages of the method include: obtaining only average values the cost of working time and equipment use time; lack of data on the sequence of execution of the processes under study, as well as possible changes, etc.

For all methods of observation, the main steps are:

• 1. Preparatory;
• 2. Direct observation;
• 3. Processing of observation results;
• 4. Analysis of research materials;
• 5. Formulation of conclusions, recommendations, specific results, etc. in accordance with the research objective.

From the purpose of observation depend: the choice of the performer; the degree of division of the process under study; determination of the method and technique of conducting research; volume of observations (necessary and sufficient); processing of the received materials and the degree of its detail; presentation of results.

During the period of preparation for observation, the process under study is divided into its constituent elements of operation, complexes of techniques, techniques, actions, and movements. In accordance with this, fixed points are determined - points - for momentary observations.

Fixing points are sharply pronounced moments of the beginning or end of the execution of each of the elements of the operation or categories of labor costs, upon the occurrence of which time is noted (fixed) in the process of observation; fixing points - the places of the observer's route, having caught up with which, he must fix than in this moment the worker is busy or what work is being done on the equipment.

Technical means are selected depending on the objectives of the study, taking into account their availability and specific application possibilities.

To ensure the reliability of the results of observations, it is necessary to substantiate their sufficient and necessary volume.

One observation is the study of the labor costs of one performer when performing work in certain organizational, technical and sanitary conditions and one value of the variable factor over a period of time sufficient to carry out the required number of measurements. One measurement is a one-time fixation of the execution time of an element of the process under study.

At the preparatory stage, the front side of the observation sheet is filled in, where data characterizing the performer is recorded (full name, personnel number, specialty, length of service in the specialty, length of service at this job, tariff category, production assessment), work performed (name of the operation, parts, products, characteristics of the material, tool, category of work), equipment (name, model, passport data, etc.), organization of the workplace (layout, equipment, maintenance procedure) etc. At the second stage, direct observation is carried out in accordance with the chosen method of study and fixation of the time spent on the performance of the work (function). In the process of observation, an observation sheet is filled in, in which it is recorded what was observed, i.e. the work hours being studied, the current time or duration of the costs, their indexation, and the observer's special notes. The recording form can be: digital (recording of the current observation time in hours, minutes, seconds); index; graphic; mixed.

The third stage is the processing of the received data, which consists in calculating the average and establishing the final results for all the indicators studied, compiling reports of the same-name costs of working time and making calculations.

The fourth stage is associated with the analysis and design of more efficient processes (labor, technological, production), the cost of working time.

At the fifth stage, carried out on the basis of the materials obtained in the process of observations, the value of the established norm of labor costs is determined.

To take a photo of the working time, the observer must arrive at the workplace 15-20 minutes in advance. before the start of the shift. Observation begins from the moment the work is carried out by the performer, if it is late, a corresponding note is made in the observation sheet. If the performer continues to work after the end of the shift, the observation should be carried out before its end. During the observation process, it is not recommended to give the performer any instructions and distract him with questions about the reason for downtime and changes that occur in the course of the work. All changes must be noted in the observation sheet and used in the analysis of study materials.

The analysis of the results of observations begins with the establishment of the necessity and degree of rationality of the performance of individual elements of the work, the labor process, etc. In the process of studying the data obtained, it is necessary to design rational options for the implementation of the process and the amount of time for their implementation. The results of the analysis are used to establish the norms of the preparatory and final time, the time for servicing workplaces, time for rest and personal needs, their implementation, as well as solving other issues of organization and labor rationing.

Timing is a type of observation, during which cyclically repeating elements of operational work, elements of operational, preparatory-final and time for servicing the workplace are studied.

Timekeeping observations are characterized by the main stages. Some features of conducting, processing and analyzing the results of timing are considered below.

Preparing for observation to a large extent depends on goals and specific tasks timing. This refers to the degree of dismemberment of the process under study, the organization of work in the workplace and the choice of the employee.

The number of necessary measurements (observations) is determined taking into account the nature of the work, the type of production, the duration of the studied element of work in accordance with the requirements for the accuracy of the measurement result.

Table 1

Type of production, duration of the studied element of work, sec.	The nature of the work and the participation of the worker in it
machine work	Machine-handmade	Equipment monitoring	Handmade
The number of measurements during timing ( normative coefficient time series stability).
Bulk up to 10
Large-scale Up to 10
Medium series Up to 10
Small-scale and single

The accuracy of measurements depends on the duration of the studied operations, the labor process and their elements. With the duration of the process element up to 10 sec. measurements are carried out with an accuracy of 0.1 sec; for up to 1 min. - up to 0.2 sec.; with a longer duration of the studied elements (up to 3 minutes or more), the error in recording the time spent is allowed up to 5% of the duration, but not more than 1 minute.

Observation should be carried out after 40-60 minutes. after the start of work and 1.5-2 hours before the end of the working day, finish - no later than 30 minutes. until the end of the work. Observations should be carried out not only in the daytime, but also in other working shifts.

In chronometric observations, an important point is the assessment of the pace of work, because the goal of the study is increasingly becoming not so much the study of the cost of working time, but the projection of their minimum values, taking into account the assessment of the degree of labor intensity. The observer, measuring the execution time of the elements of the execution of the labor process, must simultaneously evaluate the pace of the work of the performer, comparing the actual with the pre-established, so-called normal. The normal level of labor intensity (through the assessment of the pace of work) should ensure the minimum production costs in order to achieve maximum profit and, at the same time, provide a physiological norm that is favorable for the health of the performer. As a normal, it is recommended to use the pace of work adequate to the speed of the basic microelement "stretch your hand with a small degree of control at a distance of 40 cm", equal to 93 cm/sec. This pace is incorporated into the domestic basic system of microelement standards (BSM). The processing of observational results is connected with the analysis of chronological sequences by comparing the actual stability coefficients of the series with their standard values ​​(given in the table). If the actual coefficient is less than or equal to the normative one, the time series is considered stable, and the observation is considered qualitative; otherwise, after excluding random measurements from the time series, the observations are repeated.

Further processing of the results of observation consists in establishing the average duration of the execution of each element of the analyzed process and the norm of time.

Photochronometry is a type of observation in which timekeeping is carried out simultaneously with a photograph of working time during its individual periods. It is advisable to use it when studying the time spent on individual elements of work that are not repeated cyclically during the working day.

Observations and measurements are carried out by the accepted methods of processing the results of observations, the analysis of the data obtained and the design of rational labor processes during photo timing are carried out separately according to the data of timing observations and photographs in the prescribed manner.