Informal communication is all kinds of personal contacts outside the official relations of colleagues, members of any organizations. Of course, informal communication is also possible with workmates, but only if it goes beyond the scope of official relations. Examples can be non-official contacts with workmates, acquaintances, meetings with friends, comrades in sports and other hobbies, etc. A special area of informal communication is communication between close people or family members.
Informal communication is based on interests, values, hobbies, etc. It is for this reason that an enterprise can have as many informal groups as there are common topics for communication. Also, informal communication in a group is an additional informal channel for the receipt of important information for a person, concerning both the situation at the enterprise and outside it.
Formal role communication
Formal-role communication involves a different duration of communication between people who have certain roles. The participants in such communication perform certain functions in relation to each other: the buyer - the seller, the passenger - the conductor, the waiter - the client, the doctor - the patient, etc. Service relations also have a functional-role character, but they are characterized by a significant duration, they, as a rule, are of great importance in people's lives. Their participants know each other to a greater or lesser extent, at least as workers, members of the same team. The interlocutors tend to keep themselves and the interpersonal situation "under control", and this control is mainly aimed at hiding their own inner experiences and creating a certain impression of themselves. In fact, the interlocutors enter into communication rather than as people, but as "social functionaries." Spontaneity and naturalness are minimal or absent at all, there is a strong orientation towards stereotypical politeness, observance of rituals of role behavior, etc. At the same time, the life of the individual inner world, of course, is intensely hidden, and if it manifests itself, it is only indirectly, contrary to the desire of the interlocutors or unconsciously. Even if a person is aware of something of what is happening in his subjectivity, then outside he seeks to manifest only that which corresponds to his ideas about what is proper, right.
Accordingly, the expressiveness of the interlocutors in such communication is of a very specific nature - this is not a manifestation of one's true self, but the creation of a certain "image of oneself", an attempt to wishful thinking. Naturally, accessibility to influence in this case is minimal, blocked by anxieties and defenses, role barriers and stereotypes.
"mask contact"- formal communication, when there is no desire to understand the interlocutor and the characteristics of his personality, interests, internal state; with such superficial communication, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, compassion, attention, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor. When a talkative old woman speaks to you in a trolleybus and starts talking about her problems, then, without really listening to her words, you politely nod in response, as if listening to her. Or you saw a pretty girl and are looking at her with interest, but if she, feeling your look, looks at you, you will immediately put on an indifferent look and look out the window. Such communication is often found in superficial, quick contacts with strangers or at the very beginning of an acquaintance. If people continue to communicate under masks, without revealing themselves and “building themselves out of something”, then they become uninteresting with each other, they will not get closer. Living in big city, the contact of masks is sometimes simply necessary, since you meet with many people and there is no need to communicate with everyone; sometimes it is useful to “fence off” with a mask so as not to hurt each other unnecessarily. People in the village behave quite differently, where everyone knows each other, so hiding something or misleading is useless.
In role-playing communication, a person loses a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since one or another of his steps, actions are dictated by the role being played. In the process of such communication, a person no longer manifests himself as an individual, but as a certain social unit that performs certain functions.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of informal relationships at work? What is the importance of informal communication for effective management team? And how to find the line that should never be crossed? Oleg Bykov, head of the network operation department of a telecommunications company, tried to answer these questions.
“Laws that are too strict are like strings that are too tight and still playable. Too soft laws resemble completely loosened strings, from which it is no longer possible to extract sound.
Xu Xuemo. Selected Aphorisms, Aphorisms of Old China
“Chiefs have the right to give orders to subordinates and must check their implementation. Subordinates are obliged to obey their superiors unquestioningly.
Charter of the internal service of the Armed Forces of the USSR
“And yet… Where is this guy’s button?”
From the movie "The Adventures of Electronics"
Probably, there is not a single leader who does not understand the importance of informal relations in the arsenal of methods for managing a production team. in mass modern techniques and there are no recommendations, probably not a single one, which would be based purely on formal relations in the leadership process.
It may very well be that it is the ratio of formal and informal methods of management in a particular methodology that determines the difference between them.
Obviously, the best option is a combination of formal and informal management methods. Their ratio is determined by common sense and the leader's ability to act in a particular situation. And the implementation of informal management methods is provided by informal relations.
For a better understanding, let's define some basic terminology:
Group- a relatively isolated association of people who are in a fairly stable interaction and carry out joint actions for a sufficiently long period of time.
Supervisor- the official status (position) of a person who is obliged to influence others (subordinates) so that they perform the assigned work in the best possible way.
Leader- a person in a group (organization) who enjoys great, recognized authority, has influence, which manifests itself as control actions; a member of the group, for whom she recognizes the right to make decisions in situations that are significant for her, that is, the most authoritative person who plays a central role in organizing joint activities and regulating relationships in the group.
formal leadership- the process of influencing people from the positions of their position.
informal leadership- the process of influencing people with the help of their abilities, skills and other personal resources.
Informal communication is such a connection with a person that involves mutual acceptance personal qualities, understanding, agreement and psychological intimacy
Communication- the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by joint activities, including the exchange of information and attempts to influence each other. Communication is the process of realizing certain relationships.
Formal communication- communication, in which both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.
Informal communication- your kind of connection with another person, built on the mutual acceptance of personal qualities and virtues, which involves a certain level understanding, consent, psychological intimacy.
This article is an attempt to consider the importance of informal communication in the arsenal of means of effective management of the head-leader.
Each leader during his work accumulates a certain set of tried and tested effective management methods and techniques. Attempts to formally manage an individual or a group of people often run into resistance. Informal management will either avoid such a situation (in most cases), or at least soften the management impact so that it does not arouse objections.
As the psychologist N. Tertychnaya points out in the article “Features of informal communication at work”, informal relationships arise and exist on the basis of two levels of psychological closeness: primary and rational.
Primary level
arises already at the first contact (a long acquaintance is not required, it seems as if you have known each other for a hundred years). It is characterized by a high spontaneity of emotional perception, unconsciousness and little volitional regulation. This level of intimacy is characterized by ease, a high degree of trust and understanding, the correct forecast of a partner in a situation and, finally, acceptance of him with all his strengths and weaknesses.
Rational level is based on an understanding of the similarity of attitudes, values, norms, life experience. It arises at a certain stage of relations with a person, is realized and regulated by us.
It is believed that relationships based on common values and interests (rational level) are more stable at work than relationships based on likes and dislikes.
It is impossible to unambiguously evaluate all the pros and cons of informal communication at work. The line between formal and informal is almost always blurred.
I think you will not deny the presence in your company, as in any formal group, of informal relations, which largely determine the microclimate and internal atmosphere in the team.
It is impossible to unambiguously evaluate all the pros and cons of informal communication at work. Almost always, the line between formal and informal is blurred. On the one hand, no formal procedures can force out informal relations and eliminate personal interests from interaction in a production team. On the other hand, in informal communication there will always be moments that negatively affect your work and the work of your colleagues.
In the above article, N. Tertychnaya gives short list these contradictions:
1. Public opinion. Friendship with a colleague often causes jealous feelings in others, especially if your connection is not approved. Your friend's blunders may be exaggerated, and you may be accused of hiding and doing nothing.
2. Friendship with the leader. Such relationships inevitably arouse suspicion, rumors, speculation, and even envy on the part of colleagues. All your actions are examined under a microscope, and they are judged much more strictly than the actions of those who are not marked by the special favor of the leader.
3. Friendly manipulation. It’s unpleasant, but true: “old friendship” often becomes an excuse for a colleague who works carelessly or allows himself to be late, get sick a lot, delay the completion of tasks and at the same time ask: “Come into my position, cover, you know what I have now situation…"
Optimal for a leader is a combination of the qualities of a formal and informal leader. But it is difficult to combine these social roles in one person.
4. Emotional codependency. Informal communication requires constant emotional feedback from partners. And this, unfortunately, is a difficult task. Remember what anxiety a sudden cold tone of a person located towards you can cause. Like this tone, detachment makes you look for the reason for changing relationships, reconsider your actions and behavior in the recent past, and look for ways to get closer. Such a mismatch often introduces emotional instability into contacts and interferes with work.
5. Issues of ethics. Access to confidential information may have negative consequences for you. Having learned about the organizational crisis, misunderstandings with tax office, protracted financial problems, you will have to make a difficult choice - to stay or think about your own well-being and look for another place. In addition, in such a situation, you will have to hide the unpleasant truth from colleagues.
This does not mean at all that it is impossible to work with friends or that it is necessary to clearly draw a line: “We work with you until six, and after six we are friends.” In some cases, formalization of relations is simply necessary.- let not in the form job description, but in the form of a fixed range of duties and powers. In addition to white and black, there are also intermediate options, so you will have to be creative in choosing control methods.
At the same time, one must always remember that people unite in groups not only to perform certain work, to obtain a result and remuneration for it. Group is an environment of self-affirmation and self-knowledge, an objective human need for communication.
Formal groups created to implement production activities in accordance with the chosen strategy at the behest of the leaders of the organization. They have a formally appointed leader, a formal structure, a position within the group, their tasks and functions are described and formally fixed in the relevant documents. For a leader, informal communication in a group is an additional informal channel of income important information concerning both the situation in the enterprise and outside it.
How to find and not cross the line of friendships at work - depends on the wisdom, tact and character of fellow friends
The manager cannot but be interested in the state of interaction in the group, because the effectiveness of management depends on it. Since informal relationships often play a greater role than formal ones, the manager must know the laws of group dynamics and how to influence the development of informal interactions. This influence must be targeted.
Effective group- this is a group in which interactions are characterized by cohesion, mutual respect, mutual understanding. This is a group rallied around the leader. And leadership differs in the strength of influence on the members of the group (organization). People obey one leader implicitly, while the advice or instructions of another follow only as long as they do not conflict with their own interests and attitudes.
Optimal for a leader is a combination of the qualities of a formal and informal leader. However, the combination in one person of these social roles, especially the roles of manager and emotional leader, are difficult to achieve. For maximum efficiency of personnel management, it is necessary that the head is at least a formal leader at the same time.
In general, full-fledged leadership allows you to manage people without their resistance and discontent, formal control, fear and punishment.
According to many scientists, leaders are born, but they are made even more so through training, perseverance. individual work illuminated by the knowledge of practical experience and the skills acquired in it. Based on all this, in principle, almost every competent leader can become a business leader, and in many ways an emotional (although this is not always required) leader.
The practice of informal relations by the manager will ensure the involvement of employees in the regulation of formal relations within the apparatus, the settlement of almost inevitable frictions and conflicts, assistance in establishing informal contacts that will not turn employees into a closed corporation, but will contribute to the growth of management efficiency.
Oleg Bykov - head of the network operation department of a telecommunications company, HRM expert
- Career and Self-development
Keywords:
1 -1
Informal communication is all kinds of personal contacts that occur outside of official relations. If expressed plain language, then it implies a conversation between people without restrictions and compliance with the rules. And informal communication most often occurs spontaneously. To make contact with someone, a person does not need to formulate phrases in advance, come up with topics and prepare his thoughts. AT this case everything is much easier. But from the point of view of psychology, this topic is of considerable interest. So it's worth exploring it further.
Types of communication
First, I would like to pay attention general concepts. Consider the types and forms of communication, to be more precise. You should start with the most common classification.
There is material communication. We encounter it regularly, because it involves the exchange of products of activity or objects. Cognitive communication is also not rare. It involves the exchange of knowledge and information. And this means not only the contact between the teacher and students, the lecturer and students, the boss and subordinates. If one friend calls another to inquire about the weather in his city before coming to visit, this is also cognitive communication. Let it be informal.
Also, we are all very familiar with conditioning communication. With peers, it is practiced most often. After all, the exchange of emotions and feelings is implied. A vivid example is the situation when a person tries to cheer up his sad friend.
Speaking about the types and forms of communication, it is necessary to single out one more category. It's called motivational. It implies the exchange of goals, desires, interests, motives and interests. It manifests itself both in informal and in business communication. Trying to get a friend to go camping is just as motivating as a bonus promised to the employee with the most deals.
The last type of communication in the traditional system is called activity. It consists in the exchange of skills and habits. It is carried out in the process of joint activities and often in a formal setting.
Primary intimacy level
Now we can move on to the main topic. Psychologists believe that informal communication exists on the basis of two levels of intimacy. The initial one is called primary.
It is formed at the first contact. Surely it happened to everyone that after an hour of communication with a new acquaintance, the impression was that he was a good old friend. A long acquaintance is not required for this, a high spontaneity of emotional perception, an unconscious feeling of joy is manifested.
The situation does not lend itself to volitional regulation, since in the vast majority of cases the only thing people want is to continue the conversation. Not surprising, because the primary level is characterized by extraordinary ease, a high degree of understanding and trust, frankness. This is the same case when a newly-made friend, an hour after they met, is called a kindred spirit.
Rational level
It is formed after some time has passed since the beginning of communication between people. The rational level is based on the awareness by contacting people of the similarity of norms, values, life experience and attitudes. It is believed that such informal communication is more stable.
There are even traditionally distinguished groups that are often found in collectives. They represent a small informal union within one large integral business structure.
Variety of groups
It is customary to single out "couples" - a union of two people who mutually sympathize with each other. Often one of them only complements or accompanies the other.
There are also triangles. As you might have guessed, these are three people who experience mutual sympathy. They adhere to informal communication and form their own core within the business team - small, but close and united.
Still distinguish "squares". Most often this is a set of pairs. And the relationship between them is not always the same intensity.
Also in the teams there are "chains", which are often the source of gossip, rumors and the well-known "spoiled phone".
The last informal group is called the "star". Its core is a conditional leader who unites all the others.
contradictions
There is an opinion that informal communication observed between members of the work team does not always have a positive effect on labor activity.
Situations in which friendly relations bind the leader and the subordinate cause particular contradictions. Gossip, speculation, envy and suspicion from other colleagues cannot be avoided. All actions of the employee will be considered almost under a microscope. Even a well-deserved praise or award will look like it was received “through pull”. Some people who are not marked by the goodwill of the authorities will be very angry, especially aggressive ones will not hesitate to start plotting.
And it happens that the employee himself, close to the management, begins to show frivolity, relaxation. Professional responsibilities recede into the background. Why focus on work when your buddy is the boss? In the end, everything ends badly. Informal communication and friendship are sharply suppressed. The leader is fed up with such behavior, and he begins to treat a friend not as a comrade, but as a useless irresponsible worker. He, naturally, is offended and loses the desire to communicate further. This is a vivid and frequent example of proof that personal relationships and business relationships should not be confused.
On the example of friendship
There are different types of interpersonal relationships. But friendship is best example manifestations of informal communication. It is based on sympathy, common interests and affection, and there is no place in it business style speech.
Dialogue and monologue between friends is light, laid-back. Often they discuss something in their own language, their speech is replete with "private" neologisms. They also know almost everything about each other.
What makes such communication possible? Communication skills that are often not even realized by people. These include the ability to take into account not only your own representative system, but also the interlocutor. It is also important to be able to positively formulate the goals of communication, take into account the interests and values of the opponent, and be flexible in the process of dialogue. It is also necessary to be observant to changes in the emotional state of the interlocutor and tune in to his "wave" when necessary. And the above is only a small part of what the art of communicating with people implies.
Speech style
It is also worth noting. Surely everyone saw how the communication of children proceeds. It is effortless and as simple as possible. Children speak the way they think. Informal dialogue implies the same. This is a real moral rest for the individual. After all, a person can express his thoughts the way he wants, and not as prescribed by the rules. What is called conversational style of speech.
Colloquial and neologisms, jargon, slang, phraseological units, expressively colored or diminutive words, truncation, substantiation - all this and much more can contain dialogue and monologue, sustained in a colloquial style.
Speech "interference"
In general, as could be understood from the foregoing, a person in informal style communication is given complete freedom of speech. However, not everyone can use it. Why? Everything is elementary. Many people become so accustomed to communicating in a businesslike manner that even being in an informal setting, they continue to talk in a formal style.
In principle, there is nothing wrong with this, but it looks, at times, inappropriate. After all, the business style of speech is characterized by compactness and conciseness of presentation, the use of specific terminology, denominative prepositions, complex conjunctions and verbal nouns. But most of all, the lack of emotional speech means and expression attracts attention.
Distance
So, the characteristics of communication styles were given, now I would like to pay attention to the importance of distance. All people are in contact with each other, being at a certain distance. Traditionally, there are four communication zones.
The first is intimate (about 15 cm). Only the closest people usually fall into this zone. Because it can be compared to private intangible property - it is a very personal space. If an unpleasant or alien person tries to penetrate there, then there is a feeling of discomfort.
The second zone is called personal (up to 50 cm). Suitable for both business and informal communication. Approximately half a meter and usually separates friends talking at ease in a bar or cafe at a table. So it is more convenient to see the interlocutor.
The third and fourth zones are called social (up to 1.2 m) and public (over 1.2 m). They are typical for formal communication.
Communication rules: what not to do
This topic is also worth noting. From early childhood, communication with peers teaches us to build a dialogue, cooperate with people around us, and exchange opinions. Over the years, primitive skills are enriched, improved, replenished with new ones. However, there are people who find it very difficult to find a language with others. Sometimes business relationship seem to them simpler than informal, everyday ones. It is they who care about what in the process should be avoided.
If you want to build a positive and productive dialogue, then you do not need to ask personal and vulgar questions. Flattery should also be avoided. A discreet compliment is able to please the interlocutor and set him up for a conversation, but excessive admiration, bordering on fanaticism, will only alert.
Still no need to "twitch". It is important to keep your body under control. And it’s not enough to talk about yourself, interrupt, shout over, lie and invent something, just to develop the conversation. Also, you don’t need to think too long about the answer and look past the interlocutor - you need to learn to deal with embarrassment.
Principles of good dialogue
Continuing the topic of how to communicate correctly, it is worth noting the rules that are the basis of informal relationships.
The most important of them - do not be afraid to show interest in the interlocutor. No idea how to start a conversation? You can just ask the person to be interesting. Let him tell you something about himself. The question can be about anything. Favorite movies, music genre, places to stay in the city. Without bringing the conversation to the topic, you can ask if a person has been anywhere abroad. Yes? Then it will not be superfluous to clarify exactly where and what is interesting there. Not? So, you can clarify whether there is a desire to go somewhere and see something. This theme is very easy to develop.
You can still discuss something topical. Every day, countless events take place in the world. No one forbids highlighting the most significant of them and asking the interlocutor what he thinks of him. Then, in most cases, in the course of the conversation, a few more topics suitable for discussion “pop up”.
Correspondence
This is a great way to improve your art of communicating with people. Today, social networks provide endless opportunities for this. Besides written form informal communication is much easier than oral communication.
First, a person has a chance to formulate his thought. He can type it in the window, reread it, correct it. Or delete and write again, in a different way. In other words, a person in in social networks able to learn how to properly build a dialogue.
In addition to the formation of a culture of communication, an emotional “disclosure” of the personality is also carried out. A person who previously did not know how to communicate, who suffered from shyness, indecision and complexes, acquires skills that are necessary for existence in society. The most important thing is to learn how to transfer them to reality later.
Finally
In summary, I would like to say that they are the best example social interaction of people. In the course of them, the individual uniqueness of each person, peculiar manners, specificity of speech and communication are manifested. It is the informal, everyday, simple atmosphere that allows you to recognize this or that individual as a person with a capital letter. Because in any other forms and types of communication there are rules and boundaries. And only in the informal sphere this is not the case.
Introduction
The problem of communication is one of the most important spheres of life. All psychologists are unanimous in recognizing the importance of communication in the formation of personality in adolescence. This period is very essential for the formation of the main structural components of the personality. The formation of a climate in the team depends on how communication develops. Therefore, the study of communication problems becomes very relevant. Its relevance increases dramatically at this stage of the development of society, when there is a sharp change in social relations, the nature of personal interactions, moral standards, values, etc.
The subject of my research is the features of communication in a team.
An analysis of the work on the problem of communication shows that it is studied by many authors, both foreign and Soviet.
So, for example, A.N. Leontiev (1974) believes that communication - certain side activity, because it is present in any activity as its element.
V.M. Sokovkin (1974) analyzes human communication as communication, as activity, as attitude, as mutual understanding and as mutual influence. B.G. Ananiev (1969) emphasized that the special and main characteristic of communication as an activity is that through it a person builds his relationships with other people.
L.I. Bozhovich (1968) notes that if at primary school age the basis for uniting children is most often joint activities, then in a more adult age, on the contrary, the attractiveness of classes and interests are mainly determined by the possibility of wide communication with colleagues. For a person to be in a “team”, it is important not only to be with colleagues, but most importantly, to occupy a position that satisfies them among them.
As the studies of I.O. Kona, it is the inability, the inability to achieve such a position, that most often causes indiscipline and. This is accompanied by increased conflict of workers in relation to their groups, of which they are members.
Thus, the analysis of works on the problem of communication shows that, despite some differences in the approaches of the authors to the problem of communication, there is much in common in the studies, and the main thing is the recognition of the role of communication in the formation of personality.
The experimental study was conducted for 2 months on several groups of subjects: male and female.
The novelty of this work lies in the fact that the this study, allowed us to study the features of communication in a team on the basis of a local sample using the example of the OVICO company in the city of Chisinau.
communication team psychology
Theoretical research on the problem of communication
Psychological definitions of the concept of communication as a category in psychology
Communication is studied by various sciences: sociology, philosophy, medicine, pedagogy. We will consider communication from the point of view of psychology.
Communication is:
1) a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person;
2) the interaction of subjects carried out by familiar means, caused by the needs of joint activities and aimed at a significant change in the state, behavior and personal-semantic formations of the partner.
In view of the complexity and capacity of the phenomenon of communication, its interpretation as a concept depends on the initial theoretical and criterial foundations. In the very general view communication acts as a form of life activity. The social meaning of communication is that it acts as a means of transferring forms of culture and social experience. The specificity of communication is determined by the fact that in its process the subjective world of one person is revealed to another.
The process of communication (communication) can be defined as a technology of continuous interaction of a person with the world around him, as a sequence and features of his behavior, actions and states when transmitting information. In the communicative process, the communicator usually seeks to achieve his goal by influencing certain areas of a person. The goal is the result for which the communicator enters into communication with the recipient. The subject of communication is that part of the inner world - or the outer world of the recipient, on which the communicator influences.
Consider the definitions of the concepts of "communication" and "communication". In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova, N.I. Swedish communication is interpreted as communication, communication. In the philosophical dictionary edited by I. T. Frolov, the following interpretations of this concept are given:
1) “Communication from (lat. comunicare- to confer) is a category denoting communication, with the help of which the “I” finds itself in another”,
2) "Communication" in a broad sense - communication.
G.M. Andreeva considers communication from several perspectives: integrative, perceptual. She defines communication in the narrow sense of the word as follows: “communication consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals, that is, in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.
Yu.S. Krizhanskaya, V.P. Tretyakov note that communication is “primarily an influence, an impact on a partner, this is communication, an exchange of opinions, experiences, considerations, moods, desires, etc.” The same authors emphasize that the content of a particular communication in communication is always significant for its participants, since the exchange of messages does not happen “just like that”, but for the sake of achieving some goals, satisfying some needs.
A.P. Panfilova identifies the five most significant components of the communication process:
§ Who is speaking? - (communicator).
§ What does it say? -- (information).
§ To whom? -- (communicant, recipient).
§ On what channel? - (by what means).
§ With what effect (feedback result).
The implementation of the relationship of all significant components will be the content of communicative activity. Most often, in the process of communicative influence on a person as a recipient, the communicator sets the following tasks:
§ convince him of something;
§ understand his intentions;
§ make him do something;
§ inspire him with something;
§ to inform him about something;
§ get the necessary information from him;
§ deny him something;
§ hide something from him;
§ change his emotional state, attitude or behavior;
§ stop communicating with him.
In turn, a person as a recipient can pursue, in addition to the goals listed above, his own, somewhat different goals:
§ listen to the communicator and accept his message or not listen to him at all;
§ willing or unwilling to accept the communicator;
§ agree or disagree with him;
§ to use or not to use the information received from the communicator.
Based on the above, V.M. Snetkov proposes to distinguish between the declared and closed position of the communicator. Open (declared position) - these are statements aloud and clearly demonstrated in the behavior of the target of the communicator. The case when the communicator consciously or unconsciously seeks to hide his position is defined as a closed position.
A communicative act is an indivisible action, gesture, replica that has a certain meaning or meaning in the eyes of the recipient.
Actual interaction is a set of communicative acts used as a method of solving problems facing people. The structure of the communicative act includes the following phases:
1) preparatory;
2) establishing contact;
3) mutual orientation;
4) argumentation and decision making;
5) completion.
Any human behavior becomes communicative in the presence of an explicit or imagined recipient who is able to perceive and give meaning or meaning to every aspect, every reaction from a person’s verbal or non-verbal behavior.
The main elements of a communicative act are: communicator, recipient, communicative impact (behavior), environment and Feedback. All of the above factors influence the effectiveness of communication.
Different types of communications are distinguished in the literature: pedagogical, business, mass, etc. (N.V. Kuzmina, G.G. Pocheptsov, A.P. Panfilova). In communication, a person self-determines and self-presents, revealing his individual characteristics. According to the form of the impacts carried out, one can judge the communicative skills and character traits of a person, according to the specifics of the organization of speech communication, general culture and literacy.
Communication permeates the entire life of a person. The forms of communication are extremely diverse. Communication, expressed in direct interindividual connections of people, always corresponds to certain historically established and socially necessary forms of communication and is implemented in accordance with the norms of socially acceptable behavior (Leontiev A.A., (1974))
Consider the classification of types of communication.
The concepts of the structure and functions of communication are most directly related to various classifications of types and types of communication.
As the analysis of these classifications shows, they are carried out for a variety of reasons (by place, by time, by areas of activity, by types of subjects, etc., etc.). There are also such criteria for classifying the types of communication as their nature, goals, forms of expression, direction.
Consider some of the existing classifications. Communication is generated by social, public and other human needs, manifested in the desire to fulfill joint activities. Communication is also generated by motives that are formed in the course of the process of joint activity.
The phenomena of communication are extremely diverse, unique in many of their parameters, and often do not fit the usual stereotypes at all. The number of attempts to create a unified and universal classification of types of communication is growing. Unfortunately, they, as a rule, absolutize any one, albeit a real quality, property, side or function of communication, while others are not taken into account, as it were, remaining unfairly unnoticed. Therefore, most of the existing typologies of communication do not at all contribute to the analysis of communication itself, because their authors themselves, probably not wanting to, hang such labels that are useful in a number of situations, but essentially do not give anything for a holistic understanding of the content and essence of communication.
So, by nature - communication is divided into productive (creative) and unproductive (formal), by goals - into utilitarian and non-utilitarian, by orientation - into humanistic and manipulative, by forms of manifestation - into direct and indirect, formal and informal, according to the degree of sincerity - for open and closed, by areas of activity - business, family sports.
When determining the types of communication, care must be taken and the factors under which this communication takes place must be taken into account. So, for example, formal communication can be confused with manipulative. Formal communication is when a person, within the framework of business or diplomatic relations, communicates with a partner formally, at an official level, but when a person consciously ignores moral norms (for example, misinforms, abuses trust, blackmails, etc.), when a person is turned into a puppet - these are already manipulations, i.e. manipulative communication. It is also worth noting that the act of communication can be different types, depending on the type of classification by which it is characterized.
Consider another classification - by category. By category, communication can be divided into interpersonal, personal-group and intergroup. Communication can also be classified according to the degree of mediation. Communication can be direct and indirect.
Direct - this is when communication occurs without any intermediate links, i.e. mediated communication is when intermediaries appear between the interlocutors.
These types of communication have their advantages and disadvantages. So, in a face-to-face conversation, there are more channels of feedback. This means that each of the communicating parties is able to see and analyze how the opposite party perceives information. But mediated communication greatly simplifies the life of people who are timid and indecisive.
Scheme 1: Classification of communication.
H. According to the degree of mediation:
v Direct
v Indirect
v Pantomime
4. By purpose:
v Spiritual interpersonal fellowship of friends
v business communication
v Secular fellowship
v Primitive communication (according to the principle of "needed - not needed")
v Manipulative communication (one of the communicaters tries to take advantage of
interlocutor, to force him to serve his goals).
v Formally - role-playing (when instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they manage with the knowledge of his
5.By duration:
v short-term
v long
So, as we see from Scheme 1, the following types of communication are distinguished:
1. "Mask contact" - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand the interlocutor, using the usual masks (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards interlocutor. Sometimes such contact is justified in order not to “hurt” each other unnecessarily, in order to “isolate themselves” from the interlocutor.
2. Primitive communication, when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object: if necessary, they actively make contact, if it interferes, they will push away or aggressive rude remarks will follow. If they get what they want from the interlocutor, then they lose further interest in him and do not hide it.
3. Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.
4. Business communication - when the characteristics of the personality, character, age, mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but uninteresting cases are more significant than possible personal differences.
5. Spiritual, interpersonal communication of friends, when you can touch on any topic and it is not necessary to resort to help, words, a friend will understand you by facial expression, intonation, movements.
6. Manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor, using different techniques (flattery, intimidation, demonstration of kindness, etc.), depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor's personality.
7. Secular communication. Its essence is non-objectivity, i.e. people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because people's points of view on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communications.
The means of communication include:
1. Language is a system of words, expressions and rules for their combination into meaningful statements used for communication.
2. Intonation, emotional expressiveness, which is capable of giving different meanings to the same phrase.
3. Facial expressions, posture, gaze of the interlocutor can enhance, complement or refute the meaning of the phrase.
4. Gestures as a means of communication can be both generally accepted, i.e. have meanings assigned to them; or expressive, i.e. serve for greater expressiveness of speech.
5. The distance at which the interlocutors communicate depends on cultural, national traditions, and the degree of trust.
The communication process includes the following steps:
1. The need for communication (it is necessary to communicate or find out information, influence the interlocutor, etc.) encourages a person to make contact with other people.
2. Orientation for the purposes of communication, in a situation of communication.
3. Orientation in the personality of the interlocutor.
4. Planning the content of his communication, a person imagines (usually unconsciously) what exactly he will say.
5. Unconsciously (sometimes consciously) a person chooses specific means, speech phrases that he will use, decides how to speak, how to behave.
6. Perception and assessment of the interlocutor's response, monitoring the effectiveness of communication based on the establishment of feedback.
7. Correction of direction, style, methods of communication.
If any of the links in the act of communication is broken, then the speaker fails to achieve the expected results of communication - it will be ineffective. These skills are called "social intelligence", "practical-psychological mind", "communicative competence", "sociability".
Next, we give an illustration of the functions of communication (according to Karpenko): information, coordination, functions of understanding, and establishing relationships. One of the existing classifications of communication functions is the classification of L.L. Karpenko, according to which eight functions are distinguished according to the criterion "purpose of communication":
1. contact, the purpose of which is to establish contact as a state
mutual readiness to receive and transmit messages and maintain relationships in the form of constant mutual orientation;
2. informational, the purpose of which is the exchange of messages, that is, the reception and transmission of any information in response to a request, as well as the exchange of opinions, ideas, decisions, etc.;
3. incentive, the purpose of which is to stimulate the activity of a communication partner to perform certain actions;
4. coordination, the purpose of which is mutual orientation and coordination of actions in the organization of joint activities;
5. understanding, the purpose of which is not only an adequate perception and understanding of the meaning of the message, but also an understanding of each other by partners (their intentions, attitudes, experiences, states, etc.);
6. emotive, the purpose of which is to excite the necessary emotional experiences in the partner (“exchange of emotions”), as well as to change their own experiences and states with its help;
7. establishment of relations, the purpose of which is the awareness and fixation of one's place in the system of role, status, business, interpersonal and other relations of the community in which the individual has to act;
8. exerting influence, the purpose of which is to change the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of the partner, including his intentions, attitudes, opinions, decisions, needs, actions, activity, etc.
Psychological features of communication in a team.
In communication in a team, two opposite trends are noted: the expansion of its scope, on the one hand, and the growing individualization, on the other. The first is manifested in an increase in the time spent on him, in a significant expansion of his social space (among his closest, work colleagues, subordinates), in the expansion of the geography of communication, and, finally, in a special phenomenon called "expectation of communication" and acting in the very searching for him, in constant readiness for contacts.
As for the second trend - the individualization of relationships - it is evidenced by a strict delimitation of the nature of relationships with others, high selectivity in friendly affections, and sometimes the highest demands on communication in a dyad.
It can be thought that these two existing orientations “serve” the different needs of the employee in the “search” for communication, the need to experience a new experience, to test oneself in a new role is embodied, and in selectivity, the need for self-identification and mutual understanding. Both needs are urgent, and the way they are satisfied or not satisfied causes deep feelings among workers (Dobrovich A.B., (1987)).
It is important for employees not only to be in a team, but most importantly, to occupy a position that satisfies them among their colleagues. For some, this desire can be expressed in the desire to take a leadership position in the group, for others to be recognized, beloved comrade, for others - an indisputable authority in some business. As studies by I.S. Kona (1989) it is the inability, the inability to achieve such a position, that most often causes indiscipline.
There are data (Kon I.S., (1989)), according to which informal communication not only in dyads, but also in groups is subject to such motives as the search for the most favorable psychological conditions for communication, the expectation of sympathy and empathy, the thirst for sincerity and unity in views, the need to assert themselves.
As literary analysis shows (Tolstykh N.N., (1990), I.V. Dubronin, (1989), etc.), relations with colleagues are a relationship of fundamental equality. They allow employees to be equal participants in all sorts of cases.
Any person is very sensitive to his position in relations with people, he becomes dissatisfied with the fact that in his communication with his superiors he turns out to be a subordinate and unequal being. That is why the importance of communication with colleagues increases for him, in which there is no communication, and there cannot be a deliberate inequality. The objective position of the worker in the team is in harmony with his demand, with his need to be equal.
Relations in the team are more complex, diverse and meaningful. These relationships differ markedly in the degree of closeness: an employee can simply have comrades, colleagues, friends.
The employee considers communication in a team to be his own, personal relationship: here he has the right and can act independently. Therefore, any intervention by any parties, especially not tactful, causes resentment, protest, resistance. And the more unfavorable relations with superiors, the more colleagues occupy a place in his life, the stronger the influence of the team (I.S. Kon, V.A. Losenkov (1974)).
DI. Feldstein identifies three forms of communication:
§ Intimate-personal,
§ spontaneous group,
§ Socially oriented
Intimate-personal communication - interaction based on personal sympathies - "I" and "you". The content of such communication is the complicity of the interlocutors in each other's problems. Intimate-personal communication arises under the condition of common values of partners, and complicity is ensured by understanding each other's thoughts, feelings and intentions, empathy. The highest forms of intimate-personal communication are friendship and love.
Spontaneous group communication - interaction based on random contacts - "I" and "they". The spontaneous-group nature of communication dominates if the socially useful activity of the team is not organized. This type of communication leads to the emergence of various kinds of companies, informal groups. In the process of spontaneous group communication, aggressiveness, cruelty, increased anxiety, isolation, etc. acquire a stable character.
Socially-oriented communication - interaction based on the joint implementation of socially important matters - "I" and "society". Socially-oriented communication serves the social needs of people and is a factor contributing to the development of forms of social life of groups, collectives, organizations, etc.
A relatively complete element of the activity structure, aimed at achieving the goal, is ...
An element of the activity structure is ...
Human attention...
Attention, which is due to the interests of a person, and is also characterized by purposefulness and the absence of the need for volitional efforts is called ...
Helps to grab attention...
The cause of post-voluntary attention is...
A stimulus or object attracts the more attention the more it ...
The basis for the classification of imagination into voluntary and involuntary is ...
The task of thinking is...
The specificity of thinking as a mental cognitive process is that it allows ...
The forms of thinking are concept, judgment and ...
In the ability to quickly change the way of solving a problem, ... thinking is manifested.
The depth and independence of thinking is his ...
The mental operation of dismembering a complex object into parts
- this is...
a) abstraction;
b) classification;
c) generalization;
d) analysis.
39. The ability of thinking to cover the whole issue, while at the same time not losing attention to the necessary details, describes such a characteristic of thinking as ...
a) latitude;
b) independence;
c) depth;
d) flexibility.
b) levels;
d) quality.
a) latitude;
b) depth;
c) independence;
d) flexibility.
42. The ability to penetrate into the essence of complex phenomena, processes determines ... thinking.
a) latitude;
b) depth;
c) flexibility;
d) independence.
43. The ability of a person to put forward new tasks and find
ways to solve them, without resorting to the help of other people, is characterized by... thinking.
a) latitude;
b) depth;
c) independence;
d) flexibility.
44. The most essential properties of objects and phenomena
expressed in...
a) a hypothesis
b) judgment;
c) concept;
d) a problem.
45. Determine the sequence of development in humans various kinds thinking: ...
2 a) visual-figurative
1 b) visual and effective;
3 c) verbal-logical
4 d) abstract-shaped
46. Analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, classification - this is ... thinking.
c) operations;
a) a problematic situation;
b) hypothesis;
c) problem solving;
d) inference.
a) use past experience in solving problems;
b) get a holistic image, a holistic view of the object;
c) go beyond the sensually perceived;
d) distract, abstract from emotions and feelings.
49. The ratio between the strength of motivation and the effectiveness of mental activity is as follows:
a) the higher the motivation to solve the problem, the higher the efficiency of mental activity;
b) thinking is most effective with low motivation;
c) there are optimal limits on the level of motivation, if motivation is more or less than the specified range, the effectiveness of thinking decreases;
d) motivation does not affect the effectiveness of solving problems.
a) in the formation of attitudes towards objects;
b) in the disclosure of connections and relationships between objects;
c) in the formation of links between known and new information;
d) in the formation of ideas about the object.
51. The main difference between the thinking of a child and an adult is
in... thinking.
a) speed;
b) independence;
c) flexibility;
d) types used.
52. One of better ways motivation for the effectiveness of mental activity ...
a) threat of punishment;
c) personal interest.
d) There is no correct answer.
53. Are the processes of thinking and perception connected?
a) connected.
b) Not related.
c) Associated only with visual-figurative thinking.
d) Associated only with verbal-logical thinking.
54. When a group of people only offers ideas, and their analysis
and criticism is carried out later, it is...
a) method brainstorming;
b) method of morphological analysis;
c) heuristics;
d) All answers are correct.
55. To maintain optimal motivation, the effectiveness of mental activity is necessary ...
a) Start solving problems of medium difficulty, then rest, solving easy problems, and then take on difficult ones.
b) Gradually increase the complexity of the tasks to be solved.
c) Start with the simple ones and then move on to the more complex ones.
d) Start with difficult problems right away.
56. Unconscious level of the psyche ... in the process of solving problems?
a) Participates always.
b) Does not participate.
c) Participates in solving complex problems.
d) Participates in children.
57. The task will be more attractive to a person if ...
a) Formulate it in a problematic form.
b) Indicate its creative nature.
c) Formulate the task taking into account the interests of the person.
d) All answers are correct.
58. The mental process of creating new images, ideas is called ...
a) perception
b) attention;
c) thinking;
d) imagination.
59. The image of an object or phenomenon that occurs in the absence
of this object (phenomenon), and based on the past experience of a person, is called ...
a) a dream
b) perception;
c) presentation;
d) an association.
60. There are differences between the ideas of different people ... of the image.
a) only in brightness;
b) only in full;
c) only for clarity.
d) All answers are correct.
e) All answers are wrong.
a) the subject of reflection;
b) degree of awareness;
c) the degree of novelty;
d) the degree of purposefulness.
62. The basis for distinguishing between visual and auditory images
imagination is...
a) the subject of reflection;
b) the form of existence of matter;
c) the modality of the image.
d) There is no correct answer.
63. Unlike others cognitive processes his
no content...
a) sensation
b) perception;
c) imagination;
d) attention.
e) There is no correct answer.
a) more familiar
c) more intense.
d) in different ways, depending on age.
e) There is no correct answer.
65. Concentration of consciousness on any object is...
a) reflection;
b) attention;
c) perception;
d) concentration.
66. Attention is... the focus of consciousness on a certain object.
a) electoral;
b) short-term;
c) stable;
d) unconscious.
67. The basis for classifying attention into involuntary, voluntary, post-voluntary is ...
a) human activity in the organization of attention;
b) subject of reflection;
c) focus of attention;
d) the nature of the connection with practice.
68. Focusing attention on an object due to some of its
features characteristic of ... attention.
a) involuntary;
b) arbitrary;
c) post-voluntary;
d) unstable.
69. Directly under the influence of the characteristics of the perceived object, ... attention arises.
a) involuntary;
b) arbitrary;
c) post-voluntary.
d) There is no correct answer.
70. Arbitrary attention is not due to ...
a) awareness of duty and responsibility;
b) volitional efforts;
c) the requirements of the activity;
d) the attractiveness of the object.
e) All answers are correct.
e) All answers are wrong.
a) lack of purpose of activity;
b) setting the goal of the activity;
c) interest as a manifestation of the orientation of the personality;
d) interest due to the identified features of the object.
e) All answers are correct.
72. Orienting reflex is considered as a mechanism
... attention.
a) involuntary;
b) arbitrary;
c) post-voluntary.
d) There is no correct answer.
73. Values of attention parameters allow to judge...
a) only about the human condition;
b) only about the degree of fatigue;
c) only about the level of wakefulness.
d) All answers are correct.
e) All answers are wrong.
74. The ability of a person to focus attention simultaneously on several objects is defined as ... attention.
a) concentration;
b) distribution;
c) stability;
d) switching.
e) There is no correct answer.
75. The degree of concentration of consciousness on an object is ...
attention.
b) concentration;
c) stability;
d) switching.
76. The ability to hold attention for a long time
the same object is defined as... attention.
b) selectivity;
c) stability;
d) concentration.
a) only the strength of stimuli;
b) only the connection of stimuli with the needs, interests of a person;
c) All answers are correct.
d) All answers are wrong.
a) involuntary;
b) arbitrary;
c) post-voluntary;
d) idealistic.
79. Attention is...
a) mental process;
b) mental state;
c) mental education;
d) mental property.
a) has a social nature;
b) is determined by natural factors;
c) has a physiological basis.
d) All answers are correct.
81. The main characteristics of post-voluntary attention are ...
a) involuntary, ease of occurrence and switching;
b) purposefulness, interest, stress relief;
c) orientation determined by the task, willpower, fatigue.
d) the answers are wrong.
82. The condition for the emergence of involuntary attention is ...
a) the decision made;
b) the task;
c) the action of a strong, significant, contrasting or emotionally stimulating stimulus;
d) "entry" into the activity and appeared in connection with this
interest.
83. Attention is closely related to ...
a) perception;
b) thinking;
c) memory;
d) presentation;
e) All answers are correct.
g) All answers are wrong.
Topic: Motivational-need
sphere of personality
1. The active interaction of a person with the surrounding reality, in which he achieves a consciously set goal, is ...
a) activity;
b) operation;
c) activity;
e) action.
a) activity;
b) movement, gesture;
c) behavior;
e) action.
3. The image of the desired future, the perceived result, to which the action is directed, is ...
a) a need
d) task;
e) operation.
a) operation;
b) action;
c) activity;
5. What motivates a person to activity is ...
a) activity;
b) behavior;
d) desire.
Section Social psychology
Topic: "Psychology of communication"
1. Determine the match:
The answer in the task is formulated as a letter and a number separated by commas. Answer: A2, B1, D3
Determine at what type of communication intermediate links are wedged in the form of a third person, mechanism, thing:
a) short term
b) direct;
c) personal-group;
d) indirect;
e) long term.
2. Define the name of the tool group non-verbal communication, which is characterized by the inclusion of pauses, crying, laughter, sighs, coughing in speech:
a) extralinguistics;
b) prosody;
c) kinesics;
d) takeshika.
3. Define the name of a special area that studies the norms of spatial and temporary organization communication:
a) takeshika;
b) proxemics;
c) kinesics;
d) prosodic.
4. Determine the name of the position of the communication partner, whose state of mind reproduces the thoughts and reactions that the individual had in early childhood:
a) a parent
b) a child;
c) an adult;
d) non-participation.
5. Define the name of the side of communication, which means the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis:
a) interactive;
b) perceptual;
c) communicative;
d) regulatory.
6. Determine what social psychology studies:
a) the psyche as a property of the brain to reflect objective reality;
b) the mental development of the individual in the process of life;
c) patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of their inclusion in social groups, as well as psychological characteristics these groups themselves;
G) social norms that determine how they respond to gender differences individual person, a group or an entire cultural community.
7. Determine the nature of the interaction with the communication partner when the “novelty effect” is manifested:
8. Determine the mechanism of cognition of another person, in which the individual puts himself in the place of a communication partner:
a) identification;
b) reflection;
c) empathy;
d) feedback mechanism.
9. Determine, as a result of which effect of perception the most recent information has the greatest impact on the personality:
a) halo;
b) novelty;
c) primacy;
d) disinformation.
10. Determine what meaning the concept of "informal communication" has:
a) subjective personal;
c) all answers are correct;
11. Indicate the name of the method in which a person is judged on the basis of a generalized characteristic of the social type to which he is assigned, called:
a) analytical;
b) socially typical;
c) emotional;
d) associative.
12. Define a group of means of non-verbal communication, including touching, shaking, kissing:
a) extralinguistics;
b) prosody;
c) kinesics;
d) takeshika.
13. Define the name of the side of communication, meaning the process of exchanging information and actions:
a) interactive;
b) perceptual;
c) communicative;
d) regulatory.
14. Determine the nature of the interaction with the communication partner when the "secondary effect" is manifested:
a) according to the latest information received about the communication partner; novelty
b) according to one's own attitude towards a communication partner; Feedback
c) according to the first impression that has developed about the communication partner; primacy
d) according to the attractiveness of the communication partner.
15. Determine the mechanism of cognition of another person, in which an individual cognizes the emotional state of another person:
a) identification;
b) reflection;
c) empathy;
d) feedback mechanism.
16. Determine, as a result of what effect of perception the first information in terms of time of receipt has the greatest impact on the personality:
a) halo;
b) novelty;
c) primacy;
d) disinformation.
17. Determine the meaning of the concept of "formal communication":
a) subjective personal;
b) due social functions;
c) all answers are correct;
d) There is no correct answer.
18. The way in which a person is judged by his appearance is called:
a) analytical;
b) socially typical;
c) emotional;
d) associative.
19. Determine the correspondence:
The answer in the task is formulated as a letter and a number separated by commas. For example: A1, B2, C3, D4. Answer: A3, B2, C1, D4
20. Define a group of means of non-verbal communication that studies the range, tonality, timbre and quality of the voice:
a) extralinguistics;
b) prosody;
c) paralinguistics;
d) takeshika.
21. Determine how the message is transmitted according to the communication process model:
a) a communicator;
b) audience;
d) message.
22. Determine the name of the special area involved in the study of facial expressions, gestures, body movements:
a) takeshika;
b) proxemics;
c) kinesics;
d) prosodic.
23. Indicate the name of the position of the communication partner whose state of mind reproduces social assessments custodial and controlling processes and actions from the point of view of their expediency for a person:
a) a parent
b) a child;
c) an adult;
d) non-participation.
24. Define the name of the side of communication, which means the process of exchanging information between partners:
a) interactive;
b) perceptual;
c) communicative;
d) regulatory.
25. Determine the nature of interaction with a communication partner in the manifestation of the "boomerang effect":
a) according to the latest information received about the communication partner;
b) according to one's own attitude towards a communication partner;
c) according to the first impression that has developed about the communication partner;
d) according to the attractiveness of the communication partner.
26. Determine the mechanism of cognition of another person, in which the individual analyzes the impact of the information provided on the partner and adjusts the further communication strategy on this basis:
a) identification;
b) reflection;
c) empathy;
d) feedback mechanism.
27. Determine, as a result of which effect of perception the installation on the communication partner is formed, and certain qualities are attributed to him:
a) halo;
b) novelty;
c) primacy;
d) disinformation.
28. Indicate the name of the process of attributing to each other, both the causes and the patterns of behavior themselves are called:
a) interpersonal attraction;
b) causal attribution;
c) empathy;
d) reflection.
29. Determine the name of the method in which a person is judged on the basis of his emotional attractiveness or unattractiveness:
a) analytical;
b) socially typical;
c) emotional;
d) associative.
a) personal or personal;
b) social;
c) intimate;