Classification of projects and varieties of project management. Project activity, types of projects. Methods and types of social design, their characteristics

Projects implemented in various fields by different specialists have significant differences among themselves. Therefore, in order to choose one or another approach to managing a specific project, it is first necessary to understand the features of this particular type or type of project.

Classification of projects can be carried out on various grounds. We will consider only its most common options:

1.3.1. Project types

They differ according to the areas of activity in which the project is carried out:

1. Technical(construction of a building or structure, introduction of a new production line, development software etc.);

2. Organizational(reforming an existing or creating a new enterprise, introducing new system management, holding international conference etc.);

3. Economic(privatization of an enterprise, introduction of a system financial planning and budgeting, the introduction of a new taxation system, etc.);

4. Social(reform of the social security system, social protection disadvantaged segments of the population, overcoming the consequences of natural and social upheavals);

5. Mixed(projects implemented in several areas of activity at once, for example, an enterprise reform project, including the introduction of a financial planning and budgeting system, the development and implementation of special software, etc.).

1.3.2. Project classes

differ in composition, structure and subject area project:

1. Monoprojects- separate projects of various types and purposes, having a specific goal, a clearly defined framework for finance, resources, time, quality and involving the creation of a single project team(investment, innovation and other projects);

2. Multiproject– a complex project consisting of a number of mono-projects and requiring the use of multi-project management (reforming existing and creating new enterprises, development and implementation of in-house multi-project management systems);

3. Megaproject- targeted programs for the development of regions, industries and other entities, including a number of mono- and multi-projects (the "Marshall Plan", the creation of a common European market, the development South Korea etc.).

1.3.3. Project scale

In American practice, there is a division of projects by scale:

1. Small projects– capital investments up to $10-15 million; labor costs 40-50 thousand man-hours. Examples: pilot plants, small scale industrial enterprises, modernization of existing production facilities.

2. Megaprojects- targeted programs containing many interrelated projects, united by a common goal, allocated resources and time allocated for their implementation. Distinctive features: capital investments - from $ 1 billion and more, non-traditional forms financing (shareholder, mixed) - usually a consortium of firms, labor intensity - 2 million man-hours - for design, 15-20 million man-hours - for construction, 5-7 or more years - implementation period.

1.3.4. Project types

They differ in the nature of the subject area of the project:

1. Investment- the main goal is the creation or renovation of fixed assets of organizations that require investments;

2. Innovative- the main goal is the development and application of new technologies, know-how and other innovations that ensure the development of organizations;

3. Scientific - research;

4. Educational;

5. Mixed.

1.3.5. By duration

1. Short– up to 3 years;

2. medium term– from 3 to 5 years;

3. long term- over 5 years.

Classification of projects can be carried out on various grounds. We will consider only its most common options (Fig. 3)

1. Classification by areas of activity

Technical (construction of a building or structure, introduction of a new production line, software development, etc.).

Organizational (reforming an existing or creating a new enterprise, introducing a new management system, holding an international conference, etc.).

Economic (privatization of an enterprise, introduction of a financial planning and budgeting system, introduction of a new taxation system, etc.).

Social (reforming the social security system, social protection of the disadvantaged segments of the population, overcoming the consequences of natural and social upheavals).

Mixed (projects implemented in several areas of activity at once, for example, an enterprise reform project, including the introduction of a financial planning and budgeting system, the development and implementation of special software, etc.)

2. Classification of projects by dimension

Mono-projects are separate projects of various types and purposes, having a specific goal, a clearly defined framework for finance, resources, time, quality and involving the creation of a single project group (investment, innovation and other projects).

A multi-project is a complex project consisting of a number of mono-projects and requiring the use of multi-project management (reforming existing and creating new enterprises, development and implementation of in-house multi-project management systems).

Megaproject - targeted programs for the development of regions, industries and other entities, which include a number of mono- and multi-projects (the "Marshall Plan", the creation of a common European market, the development of South Korea, etc.).

3. Classification according to the volume of project financing

According to the amount of funding, projects can be divided into small, medium and large.

4. Classification according to the intended purpose of the project

Investment - the main goal - the creation or renewal of fixed assets of organizations that require investment.

Innovative - the main goal is the development and application of new technologies, organizational innovations, know-how and other innovations that ensure the development of organizations.

Research.

Educational.

Mixed.

Design types:

Organizational - changing the goals of the organization, personnel policy. On Into yourself: analysis external environment and external factors, mediation, reorientation of management attention to new goals, tasks, problems.

Operationally - activity - the allocation of operations, the establishment of order, the formation of algorithms.

Temporary - hosting processes in real time.

Spatial - the placement of fragments of objects or processes in space.

Structural - functional modeling is focused on the creation of systems.

32. Methods and types of social design, their characteristics

1 The business game method involves joint activities, is aimed at teaching professional communication, involves the interaction of its participants. A business game is an imitation of managerial decision-making in different situations by playing according to given rules. The game usually involves 2 competing teams and come up with their own projects. 2 Scenario creation method. This is a representation of a social project in the form of a description of the sequential development of events that are envisaged or can follow from it. This is a detailed project plan where hard work has been done according to the synchronization of events and available resources. Several scenarios can be developed, with several options for the development of the project. Alex Osborne. The main form of this method is the collective discussion of a given problem. The attack time is limited. 4Method of getting used to the role. It helps to get a more accurate idea of what needs to be done in the design process. This is not just an attempt to look into the future, but a desire to understand more deeply how the project will be implemented. 5Association method. The term "design" comes from lat. "projectus" - thrown forward; it is the process of creating a prototype, a prototype of a supposed or possible object or state. Types: designing new cities; designing new industries.

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Projects today are present in the life of every person, and they can relate to completely different areas: work, study, business, etc. And it is important and necessary to know what projects are. this helps not only to create projects yourself, but also to implement them as efficiently as possible.

In this article, we will talk about how projects are classified according to different criteria, talk about their types and differences. Taking into account that there is a lot of information on this topic, we will try to give it in the most concise form.

What are projects?

The project is a complex system process aimed at changing any areas human life. Today this concept is different countries may vary slightly, but, as a rule, a project is understood as:

idea, idea, intent
Representation, description or image of any object on media or paper

What is included in projects?

Taking into account the fact that projects involve the use of special means for their implementation, and the ways to solve certain design problems can be determined by various parameters, we can conclude that projects consist of:

Ideas (problems and tasks)
Means of solution (implementation)
Goals (results)

In a general sense, a project is something that can change something in life. And the results of the project, depending on this, can be either concrete or abstract. If we talk about the project as a dynamic system, then we can name the results:

Current
Final

In many cases, the project, together with its results, can be presented as a system of goals, which implies that the project itself is a system, i.e. a complex of different elements and their relationships, ensuring the achievement of a specific result.

Grounds for classifying projects

Projects can be classified according to the timing of implementation, scale, quality of development and implementation, place of implementation and the amount of funds used. But in reality, the variety of types of projects is even greater.

So, for the classification of projects there are the following grounds:

Project class (depends on the structure, composition and subject area)
Type of project (depends on the field of activity in which it is implemented)
Scale of the project (depends on the size, number of participants and degree of impact on the surrounding world)
Project duration (depends on the duration of the implementation)
Complexity of the project (depends on technical, organizational, financial, technological and other parties)

Now let's go directly to the description of some types of projects, namely:

organizational projects
economic projects
Social projects
Technical projects
Investment projects
Educational projects

Organizational projects

Organizational projects refer to the reform and creation of new organizations, as well as the implementation of certain activities, such as conferences, forums, symposiums, seminars, etc.

The main characteristics of organizational projects are:

Certain goals aimed at improving the organization of the system, and therefore difficult to quantify
Pre-set implementation dates
Resources
Cost control in terms of economic implementation

Economic projects

The purpose of economic projects is the restructuring of organizations and the improvement of any systems, such as tax, customs, etc.

The main characteristics of economic projects are:

Pre-intended deliverables that may be subject to change during implementation
Specific implementation dates, which are also subject to change
Predetermined costs under constant control

Social projects

Social projects designed to address specific social problems, for example, for changes in social security, the elimination of the consequences of natural disasters or social upheavals, etc.

The main characteristics of social projects are:

Intended goals, which may change along with the achievement of intermediate goals
Uncertain dates and duration
Limited resources

Technical projects

Technical projects involve the development of some new product.

The main characteristics of technical projects are:

Specific main goal
Additional goals that may change as the project progresses
Precisely defined implementation dates that change only in very rare cases
Clearly defined costs
Limitations in process and implementation due to technical side question

Educational projects

The point is to teach people some skills and provide an information base. Such projects are individual and group.

The main characteristics of educational projects are:

Scale of activity
Thematic areas
Number of performers
Implementation timeline
Importance of results

Investment projects

Almost all projects can be called investment projects, because most of them require investment, i.e. financial investments. As a rule, an investment project should be understood as a set of interrelated initiatives aimed at achieving specific results within a specific time frame.

Main Features investment projects are:

Scale of investment
Degree of risk
Degree of interconnectedness
Timing

Separately, it should be said about such features of projects as:

Scale
Duration
Elements

Scale of projects

The scale of projects is another criterion for their classification.

So, mini-projects, mono-projects, multi-projects and mega-projects can be distinguished.

Mini-projects are very small projects with a simplified structure and a minimum number of participants.

Mono-projects are separate projects of different types, types and scales, consisting of several mini-projects

Multi-projects are projects that include a number of mono-projects and are characterized by greater complexity and the number of participants

Megaprojects are projects that include a number of mono- and multi-projects; such projects can be of regional, state or interstate scale and significance

Project duration

Based on the duration indicators, projects can be divided into:

Short term (up to 2 years)
Medium-term (from 2 to 5 years)
Long-term (from 5 years)

Project elements

The number of elements has a direct impact on the complexity of the project. Complexity can be associated with many circumstances, such as, for example, the need for high quality performance, limited resources, etc.

The main elements of the projects are:

Project documentation
Activity technology
Industrial premises
Technological equipment
Production facilities
Provided products, works and services

Depending on the nature of the project, there may also be other elements. In addition, a more detailed separation of the elements above is possible.

As for those elements that are providing for any project, among them are:

Financial resources
Contracts
Agreements
Treaties
Territorial location
Premises
Staff
raw materials

Naturally, we have given the shortest and most concise classification of projects. If you want to understand this issue in more detail, you can find separate information on projects on the Internet.

In conclusion, let us say that projects are classified and managed not only by specialists and scientists, but also by ordinary people, because each of us in our lives, and especially in professional field, faces projects. For this reason, knowledge about the classification of projects can help each person to create and implement projects, and achieve their goals.

YOU ARE IN PROJECT WORK: In order for a person to be able to effectively implement projects that are significant for himself, he must be able to mobilize his potential and strength in time, which will help him achieve the intended results. And this ability implies both the development and the presence of a person's knowledge about himself and the characteristics of his personality. However, not everyone has an accurate picture of themselves. And if you have a desire to increase your personal productivity and realize your full potential, today we offer you a great opportunity to learn almost everything about yourself that can be useful in real life. We have prepared for you a specialized author's course on self-knowledge, which will reveal to you all the facets of your personality, so that you will have the opportunity to realize your most daring ideas. Move on and get to know yourself.

Let the very first important project for you be a project to know yourself!

Recommended literature 1. Mazur I.I., Shapiro V.D., Olderogge N.G. : Project management. Moscow: Omega-L, M.L. Razu Z.M. Galperina E.A. Vykhodtseva V.I. Voropaev T.M. Bronnikova S.A. Titov Yu.V. Yakushin G.I. Sekletova A.A. Ishchenko: Program and project management, module 8. Moscow: Info-M, Library scientific developments and MGSU projects BP Titarenko RISK MANAGEMENT IN INNOVATIVE PROJECTS. Moscow 2011

Definition: Mixed projects are such projects implemented in several areas of activity at once, with the involvement of specialists from different areas, these projects are the most complex and time-consuming because they require a non-standard approach

Social project A social project is an innovation constructed by the project initiator, the purpose of which is the creation, modernization or maintenance of a material or spiritual value in a changed environment, which has spatio-temporal and resource boundaries and whose impact on people is considered positive in its social significance.

An example of a social project Construction of a nursing home. It was designed on the territory of the St. Meshchovsky St. George Monastery in Meshchovsk, Kaluga Region. The residential part is represented by 40 "chambers". One-room and two-room. The living area with an atrium for guests to relax is separated from the public part, which includes a dining room, medical and administrative premises, as well as a chapel.

Technical project Technical project on the example of construction erection of buildings and structures, as well as their capital and Maintenance, reconstruction, restoration and renovation. The construction process includes all organizational, survey, design, construction and installation and commissioning work related to the creation, modification or demolition of the facility, as well as interaction with the competent authorities regarding the performance of such work.

An example of a construction project Construction of MIBC Moscow-City As part of MIBC Moscow-City, a business activity zone is being created that will unite business, residential apartments and leisure. management company for the creation and development of the entire project of the MIBC "Moscow-City" is the Open joint-stock company"CITY", and acts as the technical customer and representative of the city of Moscow in the disposal of state property of the Central Core of MIBC "Moscow-City". State unitary enterprise Moscow City Center City.

Organizational project Organizational project - This is the definition of the future structure of the organization, its management systems, procedures for performing actions, administrative, technological interactions between all elements. Operational efficiency control system organization depends on well-designed organizational system management

Economic project An economic project is a program of actions, measures for the implementation of a specific, substantive socio-economic plan, for example, the development of mining, the renewal of production, the production and sale of new goods

An example of a mega project List of constructed facilities: Olympic Stadium "Fit" Ice Arena "Puck" Ice Sports Palace "Iceberg" Adler Arena Ski Center "Rosa Khutor" Springboard "Russian Hills" Luge and bobsleigh track Extreme Park "Rosa Khutor" Construction of Olympic facilities for the olympic games 2014

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abstract

by discipline: Fundamentals of projector activity

On the topic: Types and types of projects

Completed:

Student Zharkov Vasily

Introduction

Chapter 1. Project Life Cycle

1.1 Causes and stages of the emergence of a project management system

1.2 Types of projects

1.3 Investment opportunities in Russian regions

Chapter 2 Structuring the project

2.1 General

2.2 Tools

2.3 Structuring process

2.4 Analysis of the project management system in the business center "Parus"

Chapter 3. Environment and project participants

3.1 Project environment

3.2 Project participants

Chapter 4 Determining project viability

4.1 Project performance indicators

4.1.1 Net present value

4.1.3 Internal rate of return

4.2 Payback period

4.3 Determination of the effectiveness of the introduction of a new technological line

4.3.1 Determining the net salvage value of equipment

4.3.2 Effect of investment, operating and financial activities

4.3.3 Key project performance indicators: NPV, IRR, payback period

Conclusion

Introduction

Over the past decades, a new scientific discipline has been formed - project management - a section of the theory of management of socio-economic systems that studies methods, forms, means of the most effective and rational change management.

For many centuries, mankind had to implement many projects. The increasing complexity of projects, on the one hand, and the accumulated management experience, on the other, made it necessary and possible to create an ideology and methodology for project management. The rapid development of cybernetics, control theory and operations research in the middle of the 20th century made it possible to create a number of formal models and thereby lay a systematic scientific basis for project management.

There are several main areas of study of this discipline. First, there are models and methods network planning, allowing to determine a rational or optimal sequence of work under given technological, budgetary and other restrictions. Models of this kind have been universally accepted, formed the basis of numerous PC applications, and are widely used to manage real projects.

Secondly, it is the theory and practice of management - a systematized set of provisions on the most effective management organization, which are generalizing, empirical and intuitive.

Chapter 1. Project Life Cycle

There is no single generally accepted definition of the word "project" in the literature. Therefore, we will try to consider the existing definitions:

Something that is conceived or planned, a big undertaking (Webster's Explanatory Dictionary);

Some enterprise with initially set goals, the achievement of which determines the completion of the project (Project Management Body of Knowledge);

A separate enterprise with specific goals, often including requirements for time, cost and quality of the results achieved (English Association of Project Managers);

A set of interrelated activities designed to achieve, within a given period of time and within an established budget, set objectives with clearly defined objectives (“ Operational guidance»World Bank).

As can be seen from the above definitions, enterprises or intentions that have the characteristics of a project have characteristics common to all projects:

Changes as the main content of the project;

Time limits;

Attitude to the budget;

Limited resources;

Uniqueness;

Novelty;

Complexity;

Legal and organizational support.

Based on the previous definitions, it is possible to derive a new one that satisfies all the signs and does not contradict any of the above definitions: “A project is a time-limited, purposeful change in a separate system with established requirements for the quality of results, possible limits for spending funds and resources, and a specific organization.”

1.1 Causes and stages of the emergence of a project management system

Project management methods are based on network planning techniques developed in the late 1950s in the United States. In 1956, M. Walker of DuPont, exploring the possibilities of more efficient use of the Univac computer owned by the company, joined forces with D. Kelly of the planning group capital construction by Remington Rand. They tried to use a computer to draw up scheduling plans for major projects to modernize DuPont factories.

As a result, a rational and simple method for describing a project using a computer was created. It was originally called the Walker-Kelly method, and later was called the Critical Path Method - MCP (or CPM - Critical Path Method).

In parallel and independently, the US Navy created the PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) method for analyzing and evaluating programs. This method was developed by Lockheed Corporation and the consulting firm Booz, Allen & Hamilton for the implementation of the Polaris missile system project, involving about 3800 major contractors and consisting of 60 thousand operations.

Using the PERT method allowed the program management to know exactly what needed to be done at any given time and who exactly should do it, as well as the likelihood of individual operations being completed on time. The management of the program was so successful that the project was completed two years ahead of schedule. With such a successful start, this method of management was soon used for project planning throughout the US military. The technique has proven itself well in coordinating the work performed by various contractors as part of large projects to develop new types of weapons.

Large industrial corporations began to apply a similar management technique almost simultaneously with the military to develop new types of products and modernize production. The method of work planning based on the project has been widely used in construction. For example, to manage a hydroelectric project on the Churchill River in Newfoundland (Labrador Peninsula). The cost of the project was 950 million dollars. The hydroelectric power plant was built from 1967 to 1976. This project included more than 100 construction contracts, some of which cost as much as $76 million. In 1974, the progress of the project was 18 months ahead of schedule and within the planned cost estimates. The customer for the project was Churchill Falls Labrador Corp., which hired Acress Canadian Betchel to develop the project and manage construction.

In essence, a significant gain in time was formed from the use of accurate mathematical methods in the management of complex work packages, which became possible due to the development of computer technology. However, the first computers were expensive and available only to large organizations.

Thus, historically, the first projects were state programs that were grandiose in terms of the scale of work, the number of performers and capital investments.

Initially, large companies carried out software development to support their own projects, but soon the first project management systems appeared on the software market. The systems at the origin of planning were designed for powerful mainframe computers and networks of minicomputers.

The main indicators of systems of this class were their high power and, at the same time, the ability to describe projects in sufficient detail using complex network planning methods.

These systems were aimed at highly professional managers managing the development of the largest projects, who are well acquainted with network planning algorithms and specific terminology. As a rule, project development and project management consultations were carried out by special consulting firms.

The stage of the most rapid development of project management systems began with the advent of personal computers, when the computer became a working tool for a wide range of managers. A significant expansion of the range of users of management systems has created a need to create systems for project management of a new type, one of the most important indicators of such systems was ease of use.

Management systems of the new generation were developed as a project management tool that is understandable to any manager, does not require special training and provides easy and quick start-up. Time Line belongs to this class of systems. The developers of new versions of systems of this class, trying to preserve the external simplicity of the systems, invariably expanded their functionality and power, and at the same time kept low prices, which made the systems affordable for companies of almost any level.

At present, the United States has already developed a deep tradition of using project management systems in many areas of life. Moreover, the bulk of the planned projects are small projects.

For example, research conducted by InfoWorld weekly showed that fifty percent of US users require systems to support schedules of 500 to 1,000 jobs, and only 28 percent of users develop schedules containing more than 1,000 jobs.

In terms of resources, 38 percent of users need to manage 50 to 100 resources in a project, and only 28 percent of users need to manage more than 100 resources.

As a result of the research, the average sizes of project schedules were also determined: for small projects - 81 jobs and 14 types of resources, for medium projects - 417 jobs and 47 types of resources, for large projects - 1,198 jobs and 165 types of resources.

These figures can serve as a starting point for a manager considering the usefulness of moving to a project-based form of performance management. own organization. As you can see, the application of a project management system in practice can be effective for very small projects.

Naturally, with the expansion of the circle of users of project management systems, there is an expansion of methods and techniques for their use. Western computer magazines regularly publish articles on project management systems, including advice to users of such systems and analysis of the use of network planning techniques to solve problems in various areas of management.

1.2 Types of projects

Types of projects according to the main areas of activity in which the project is implemented can be divided into:

1. technical (business center construction project);

2. organizational (project for restructuring the higher education system);

3. economic (project of financial stabilization of Russia);

4. social;

5. mixed (project for the elimination of stockpiles of nuclear weapons).

organizational project. It is characterized by the fact that the goals are defined in advance, but it is very difficult to determine the quantitative and qualitative results, because. they are related to organizational improvement of the system; time and duration are pre-set; resources are provided where possible; project costs are recorded and monitored for cost-effectiveness, but need to be adjusted as the project progresses.

economic project. It has its own characteristics: the goal is to improve economic indicators system functioning; the main goals are outlined in advance, but require adjustment as the project progresses; the same applies to project timelines; resources are provided as needed to the extent possible; costs are determined in advance, controlled for efficiency and refined as the project progresses.

Social project. They differ in that the goals are only outlined and must be adjusted as intermediate results are achieved, quantitative and qualitative assessment difficult; the timing and duration of the project depend on probabilistic factors or are just outlined and subsequently subject to clarification; the costs of the project, as a rule, depend on the budgetary appropriations; Resources are allocated as needed, within the limits of what is possible. Social projects have the greatest uncertainty.

Any project from the emergence of an idea to its complete completion passes through a certain series of successive stages of its development, the complete set of stages of development forms life cycle project. The life cycle of a project is usually divided into phases, phases - into stages, stages - into stages.

The stages of the project life cycle may differ depending on the scope of activity and the adopted work organization system. However, each project can be divided into the initial (pre-investment) stage, the stage of project implementation and the stage of completion of the project. It may seem obvious, but the concept of the project life cycle is one of the most important for the manager, since it is the current stage that determines the tasks and activities of the manager, the methods and tools used.

Project managers break down the project life cycle into stages in a variety of ways. For example, in software development projects, stages such as recognizing the need for information system, requirements formulation, system design, coding, testing, operational support. However, the most traditional is to break down a project into four major phases: project formulation, planning, implementation, and completion.

Project Formulation essentially implies a project selection function. Projects are initiated as needs arise that need to be met. However, in conditions of scarcity of resources, it is impossible to satisfy all needs without exception.

You have to make a choice. Some projects are selected, others are rejected. Decisions are made based on the availability of resources, and primarily financial capabilities, the relative importance of meeting some needs and ignoring others, and the relative effectiveness of projects.

Decisions on the selection of projects for implementation are all the more important the larger the project is envisaged, since large projects determine the direction of activities for the future (sometimes for years) and bind the available financial and human resources.

The defining indicator here is the opportunity cost of investments. In other words, by choosing project "A" rather than project "B", the organization refuses the benefits that project "B" could bring.

For comparative analysis projects at this stage, methods of project analysis are used, including financial, economic, commercial, organizational, environmental, risk analysis and other types of project analysis. Systems for planning and managing projects at this stage are usually used in a limited way, therefore, we will not dwell on these methods in more detail in this book.

Planning. Planning in one form or another is carried out during the entire period of the project. Early in the life cycle of a project, an informal preliminary plan is usually developed - a rough idea of what will need to be done if the project is to be implemented. The decision to select a project is largely based on preliminary plan evaluations.

Formal and detailed project planning begins after the decision to implement it is made. Key points (milestones) of the project are determined, tasks (works) and their mutual dependence are formulated. It is at this stage that project management systems are used, providing the project manager with a set of tools for developing a formal plan: tools for building a hierarchical structure of work, network graphs and Gantt charts, assignment tools and resource load histograms.

As a rule, the project plan does not remain unchanged, and as the project is implemented, it is subject to constant adjustments taking into account the current situation.

Implementation. After the approval of the formal plan, the manager has the task of implementing it. As the project progresses, managers must constantly monitor the progress of work.

Control consists in collecting actual data on the progress of work and comparing them with the planned ones. Unfortunately, in project management, you can be absolutely sure that deviations between planned and actual indicators always happen. Therefore, the task of the manager is to analyze the possible impact of deviations in the scope of work performed on the progress of the project as a whole and in the development of appropriate management decisions. For example, if the schedule is behind schedule beyond an acceptable level of variance, a decision may be made to speed up certain critical tasks by allocating more resources to them.

Completion. Sooner or later, but projects come to an end. The project ends when the goals set for it are achieved. Sometimes the end of a project is sudden and premature, as when a decision is made to terminate the project before it is completed on schedule. Be that as it may, but when the project ends, its leader must perform a series of activities that complete the project. The specific nature of these responsibilities depends on the nature of the project itself. If equipment was used in the project, it should be inventoried and possibly transferred for a new use.

In the case of contract projects, it is necessary to determine whether the results satisfy the conditions of the contract or contract. It may be necessary to produce final reports, and organize interim project reports in the form of an archive.

For example, consider the reconstruction project of the television center in Ostankino, which includes the reconstruction of the television technical center of Moscow television broadcasting, the creation of a media center and the development of a regional television network. The total cost of implementing the investment program of the project is $173.7 million, there are no own funds. Type of investments - direct, payback period of the project - 45 months. This project is of mixed type.

1.3 Investment opportunities of Russian regions

According to the Expert RA rating agency, Moscow and the Novgorod region are the indisputable leaders in investment attractiveness. Despite a slight increase in the risk index, the investment potential of Moscow, which is out of competition, amounted to 17% of the nationwide. A high margin of safety allowed it to remain a leader both in terms of potential and risk.

The second most attractive region of Russia is the Novgorod region. Moreover, this area has been holding leadership among regions with low potential for five years in a row. And the regions with low potential and extreme risk are Chechnya and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.

Activities in the project cycle

	Define project for detailed preparation
	Identify alternative ways to achieve project goals
	Gather information about the National Development Plan
	Reach agreement on a loan document
	Define in detail specific goals project
	Determine the overall priorities of the various projects in relation to the respective plan and sector
	Assess the acceptability of the project from a technical, commercial, economic, financial, managerial and organizational point of view
	View project documentation, including reports and correspondence
	Complete the development of feasibility studies and reports
	Compile a complete project completion report
	Carry out a gradation of projects according to their significance and the results of studies conducted prior to the preparation of the feasibility study
	Assess the relative, from a socio-economic point of view, the importance of the sectors represented in the national plan
	Discuss loan terms
	Control the progress of the project
	Reaffirm the government's position on various sectors and projects
	Adapt the project to the existing conditions
	Discuss final report with project manager and planners
	Explore the development of key areas of the project that have government support
	Direct implementation of the project according to the regulations
	Start the process of ensuring in accordance with international rules for competitive bidding
	Collect data on technical, commercial, economic, financial, managerial and organizational aspects
	Distribute contracts
	Distribute the first production release

Chapter 2. Structuring the project

2.1 General provisions

Project structuring is a tree of product-oriented components (equipment, works, services, information), as well as the organization of links and relationships between elements.

Typically, a project breakdown structure combines the division into:

Project product components;

Stages of the life cycle;

Elements of the organizational structure.

The tree structure allows you to distribute the total amount of work on the project into manageable independent blocks, which are transferred under the control of specialists.

The set of interrelationships between activities is often referred to as the project's logical framework because it determines the sequence in which work is to be performed.

Structuring helps to solve the following tasks:

Dividing the object into manageable blocks;

Distribution of responsibility;

Grade necessary costs means, time, material resources;

Creation of a single base for planning, budgeting and cost control;

Linking project work with the accounting system;

Transition from general goals to specific tasks.

2.2 Tools

For structuring, the following tools are used:

network diagram(network, network graph, PERT diagram) - graphical display of project activities and their relationships. In project planning and management, the term network refers to the full range of activities and project milestones with the dependencies established between them.

Network diagrams display the network model in graphical form as a set of vertices corresponding to jobs, connected by lines representing relationships between jobs.

This graph, called a node-to-work network or a precedence diagram, is the most common representation of a network today. management project management consulting

There is another type of network diagram, called a vertex-event network, which is less commonly used in practice. With this approach, work is represented as a line between two events (graph nodes), which in turn display the beginning and end of this work. PERT charts are examples of this type of chart.

Although in general the differences between these two approaches to representing the network are insignificant, the representation of more complex relationships between activities by a vertex-event network can be quite difficult, which is the reason for the less frequent use of this type. A network diagram is not a flowchart in the sense that this tool is used to model business processes.

The fundamental difference from the block diagram is that the network diagram models only the logical dependencies between elementary activities. It does not display inputs, processes, or outputs, and does not allow repeating cycles or loops.

Work Breakdown Structure- hierarchical structure of sequential decomposition of project tasks into subtasks. The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is the original tool for organizing work, ensuring that the total scope of work on a project is divided according to the organization's execution structure.

At the lower level of detail, activities are identified that correspond to the detailed elements of the activity displayed in the network model. The CPP provides a hierarchical format that helps the developer to:

Structuring work into main components and subcomponents

Ensuring that activities are focused on achieving the entire set of goals

Development of a system of responsibility for the implementation of project work

Development of a reporting system and generalization of information on the project.

Structural diagram of the organization(CCO) has a format similar to that of CPP. Each element of the lower level in the CPP must correspond to one or more elements from the CCO. Thus, CCO is a means of identifying who is responsible for performing work in complex organizations and provides a basis for developing the structure of an accountability system.

Goal Tree represents graphs, diagrams showing how the general goal of the project is broken down into subgoals of the next level (a tree is a connected graph expressing the subordination and interconnections of elements. In this case such elements are goals and sub-goals).

The presentation of goals starts from the top level, then they are sequentially disaggregated. At the same time, the main rule for disaggregating goals is completeness: each top-level goal must be presented in the form of subgoals of the next level exhaustively.

decision tree- graph, diagram reflecting the structure of the optimization problem for a multi-step process. The branches of the tree represent the various events that may take place, and the nodes (vertices) represent the points at which the need for selection arises.

Moreover, the nodes are different - in some, the choice is made by the project manager himself from a certain set of alternatives, in others, the choice does not depend on him.

In such cases, the project manager can assess the likelihood of a particular decision.

network model is based on work packages, the sequence of execution corresponds to the technological scheme.

Responsibility Matrix- associates work packages with performers, can take into account the calendar deadlines for the completion of work.

2.3 Structuring process

The process of project structuring can be divided into the following components:

1. Definition of the project, i.e. nature, goals, content and end products;

2. Level of detail, including:

The level of detail of the plans;

The level of elements in the project breakdown structure;

3. The structure of the process - the scheme of the life cycle of the project;

4. Organizational structure covering all areas and environment of the project;

5. Product structure, including component diagram, machinery, equipment, software and information support;

6. Chart of accounts;

7. Project breakdown structure;

8. Detailing of the master plan;

9. Matrix of distribution of responsibility.

10. network diagram and resource use plan;

11. Work order system;

12. Control and reporting system.

2.4 Analysis of the project management system in the business center "Parus"

In this case, the project should be understood as a set of engineering and architectural solutions, economic and financial plans and calculations, as well as work on the reconstruction and construction of the Parus business center, the result of which will be income from the operation of the business center.

Managing this project involves planning and developing the entire necessary documentation organization of the reconstruction process of the existing building, management and coordination of human and material resources throughout the life of the project with the use of modern methods and management techniques to achieve the goals.

Judging by the description, no project management system was used during the construction of the Parus business center. This was reflected in the fact that the project does not have a clearly defined budget; the services of a design and construction organization were not used to carry out the turnkey project; the subdivision of the General Directorate "Centre" dealing with the business center "Parus" does not coordinate the process of development and implementation of the project. In this case, a number of difficulties arise:

Available financial resources and expenses necessary for the implementation of the project;

There is no division of the project into phases of the life cycle, which makes it difficult to calculate the timing of the project;

The goals of the project are not fully formulated, without which it is difficult to choose the means to achieve the intended results;

The project work is not clearly distributed among the participants and is not divided into component parts, which makes it difficult to plan, manage and control the quality of the project;

The analysis of the market and possible risks with the subsequent selection of an alternative project option was not carried out;

The viability analysis of the project has not been carried out, which does not guarantee its successful implementation.

Switching to one of the project management systems would help to avoid all these shortcomings.

The project to create a business center "Parus" belongs to the class of mono-projects; this project is also an investment project, since it provides for the reconstruction of the building; classification by duration is difficult due to the above reasons.

For this project, the following breakdown into life cycle phases can be proposed:

Pre-investment phase:

· Analysis of the legal framework.

· The study of forecasts for the development of the economy and urban economy in the area.

· Market analysis in the field of project implementation.

Formation of an investment plan, the duration of the project, all its stages, analysis of the investment climate, forecasting of possible costs and results obtained are determined. The investment plan itself highlights the following range of issues:

· - the object of investment - the business center "Parus";

· - the purpose of investments is to receive income from the operation of the business center;

· - payback period;

- profitability of the project;

- purpose, main characteristics of the project;

· - prospective sources of financing.

Preparation of a declaration of intent, which contains, in addition to cost estimates, information about the impact of the project on environment, project timeline and investment intent.

Preliminary approval of the investment plan by all project participants.

Development of investment justifications taking into account the requirements government agencies and interested organizations in an amount sufficient for the investor to make a decision on further expediency and development project documentation. The result is an assessment of the viability of the project.

Ecological substantiation of the project.

Detailed analysis of all components of the project.

Development of a preliminary investment decision based on the results of pre-project studies.

Development of a preliminary project plan, which includes:

Plan of design and survey work;

A preliminary plan for the implementation of the entire project to assess its duration, structure and composition of the necessary project executors;

Preliminary project financing plan;

A preliminary cost estimate for the project.

Task for the development of a feasibility study.

Development of project documentation and preparation for construction:

· - development of a plan for design and survey work on the project;

· - development of a feasibility study for a project to create a business center "Parus";

· - coordination, examination and approval of the feasibility study;

- issuance of design assignments;

· - development, coordination and approval of the project (working documentation);

- making the final investment decision;

- permission to build additional space;

- assignment for the development of a project for the production of works;

· - development of a project plan for the creation of a business center.

Investment phase: Bidding and conclusion of contracts.

Preparatory work:

· - conclusion of contracts for design and survey work;

· - conclusion of contracts for building and reconstruction of the object;

- conclusion of a contract with a contractor;

- conclusion of contracts with consultants;

- development of a work plan for the project;

· - preparatory work to construction.

Construction and installation works:

· - performance of construction and installation and reconstruction works under the project;

- monitoring and control of the work;

· - adjustment of the project plan and operational plan for construction and reconstruction;

- payment for the work performed on the project.

Final phase:

· - commissioning works on the project;

- commissioning of the business center;

- demobilization of resources;

· - analysis of the results.

Operational phase:

Development of the project - holding tenders and concluding lease agreements.

Completion of the project.

Chapter 3. Environment and project participants

3.1 Project environment

The project arises, exists and develops in a certain environment, which is called the external environment.

External environment

The composition of the project does not remain unchanged in the process of its implementation and development, new elements or objects may appear in it and may be removed from its composition. A project, like any system, can be divided into elements. At the same time, links between them must be determined and maintained.

A transition zone is shown between the project and the external environment, through which communication and movement of elements involved in the work on its implementation is carried out.

The external environment is formed by factors:

political;

Economic;

Social;

Scientific and technical.

The project is closely related to the scientific and technical support, namely the achievements in the subject area of the project and the introduction of know-how.

The project combines knowledge and experience in the implementation of certain ideas, thus forming a project implementation area in which decisions on project management are made, and contributes to the implementation of the project personnel, which is part of the labor resources generally. The project focuses on the legal framework, which constitutes the legal area of the project, contracts and other legal documents are concluded on their basis.

Project financing creates a financial zone and is oriented towards the investment market. The project combines knowledge and experience in the development of the project itself and forms the project development zone, in which all project documentation is developed. The project development zone closely interacts and forms the material economy, which forms the procurement and supply zone.

The project combines the experience and methods of construction, forming a construction zone, i.e. buildings and structures directly. The construction zone implies the presence of a construction site, and it forms a land use zone.

The project combines engineering knowledge and experience, forming an engineering area that deals with the technological process, and technological process is focused on a specific production and thus the production zone is formed. The pre-investment stage of the project is closely related to the business area and the external environment. In the final phase, when the products have already been received, the project is associated with the sales area and specifically with the sales market.

3.2 Project participants

Project participants - it is the main element of its structure, which ensures the implementation of the project intent. Project participants:

1. The main participant is the Customer, i.e. future owner and user of the project results. It can be an individual or legal entity, as well as organizations that have pooled their interests and capital;

2. Investor is the party investing cash to the project;

3. Designer - developer of design estimates;

4. Supplier - logistics of the project;

5. Contractor - a legal entity responsible for the performance of work in accordance with contracts;

6. Consultant;

7. Project management - this is usually a project manager, i.e. a legal entity to which the customer delegates the authority to manage the work on the project (planning, control and coordination of the work of project participants);

8. The project team is an organizational structure headed by a project manager and created for the duration of the project in order to effectively achieve its goals;

9. The licensor is a legal or natural person, the owner of the licenses and know-how that are used in the project;

10. The bank is an investor (one of the main investors).

The project participants are:

Customer. The main customer in this project, that is, the future owner v The user of the results of the project is the Government of Moscow represented by the General Directorate "Center" of the Association "Moskapstroy". In addition to this organization, the customers are also the Russian-Austrian joint venture Stroyservice and AOZT Mospromstroy, which have combined their efforts, interests and capital to implement the project.

Investor (in this case, he is the customer). The project investor, based on the description of the project participants, is the Russian-Austrian joint venture Stroyservice, whose group of specialists is engaged in the processes of financing, design and construction control. A significant role in any project is played by the bank - one of the main investors providing project financing. Apparently, the bank of the Parus project is Mosstroybank, one of the most important founders of Mospromstroy and the official bank of the Moscow Government. The bank's responsibilities include the continuous provision of the project with funds.

Designer. The developer of project documentation is Mosproekt-1 JSC, workshop No. 3.

Contractor. Contractor, that is, a legal entity, responsible for the performance of work in this project is the firm "Orbita". The company has all the attributes necessary for this category of participants: a bank account, an independent balance sheet and, according to the Regulations, can be a general contractor for the construction of industrial and civil facilities.

Developer. The functions of the developer in the business center "Parus" are performed by employees of the planning, economic and technical services of CJSC "Mospromstroy". The main part of CJSC "Mospromstroy" are construction and installation trusts and organizations that perform the functions of logistics support for construction, as well as themselves direct work. Thus, this enterprise is to some extent a supplier.

Consultant. A possible consultant (a firm contracted to provide consulting services to other project participants on all issues of its implementation) for the Parus project can be such an organization as the Moscow Committee for Architecture in developing architectural and planning solutions for the building. Also, consulting services can be provided by Moscow State Expertise in conducting an expert analysis of aspects of the project.

Project Manager . A special place in the implementation of the project is occupied by the project manager. This is a legal entity to which the customer or another project participant delegates the authority to manage the work on the project, that is, the authority to regulate, control and coordinate the work of project participants. Judging by the description of the participants in the project for the construction of the Parus business center, the above-described powers are vested in the Stroyservis joint venture. Its powers include financing, control over design and construction. The project team includes all existing participants with their inherent powers.

Licensor. The licensor, that is, the holder of licenses and know-how used in the project, in this situation, may be the design organization Mosproekt-1 JSC, as well as Moscomarchitecture.

Project environments include:

The government of Moscow.

Gosarchstroynadzor;

Moscow State Expertise;

Moskomarchitectura;

Chapter 4. Definition of viabilityand project

4.1 Project performance indicators

Any industrial, entrepreneurial, innovative and other types of activity in order to make a profit or other final results need investments.

However, investments are limited, and the need for them is very high, so entrepreneurs, merchants, economists, financiers are faced with the problems of profitable distribution and more efficient use of investments.

These tasks are solved both at the local level individual enterprises, banks, shops, and at the level of large-scale investment programs. Decision makers and evaluating their consequences at all stages of implementation must be familiar with the basic concepts and methods of practical investment calculations.

To assess the viability of the project, the project options are compared in terms of their profitability, cost, implementation time. As a result, there will be a stable demand for products throughout the life cycle, sufficient to charge a price that will cover the costs of operating and maintaining the project facilities, paying off debt and satisfying the return on investment.

As a comparison, the results of situations without a project and with a project are taken.

The viability of the project is assessed by analyzing the commercial viability of the project options, as well as the budgetary and economic efficiency options.

The commercial efficiency indicator takes into account the financial consequences of the project implementation for its direct participants.

The budget efficiency indicator shows the consequences of the project implementation for the federal, regional and local budgets.

The economic efficiency indicator takes into account the costs and income associated with the implementation of the project, which go beyond the direct financial interests of the participants in the investment project and allow for cost changes.

Commercial (financial) efficiency - the ratio of financial costs and results that provide the required rate of return.

The project is divided into three types of activities:

Investment;

Operating room;

Financial.

The difference between inflows and outflows in operating and investing activities is called the flow real money.

Real money flow from investing activities:

2. buildings and structures

3. machines, equipment and transmission devices

4. intangible assets

5. total - investments in fixed assets (1+2+3+4)

6. working capital gain

7. total investment (6+5)

Real money flow from operating activities includes:

1. sales volume

3. revenue (1*2)

4. non-operating income

5. variable costs

6. fixed costs

7. depreciation of buildings

8. equipment depreciation

9. interest on loans (included in the cost)

10. profit before taxes

11. taxes and fees

12. projected net income

13. cushioning (7+8)

14. net inflow from operations (12+13)

Real money flows from financing activities include:

1. equity

2. short-term loans

3. long-term loans

4. repayment of debt on loans

5. dividend payments

6. balance of financial activity

Net salvage value of the object:

1. market value

2. costs

3. accrued depreciation

4. book value at time step (t step) (2-4)

5. liquidation costs

6. capital gains (1-4)

7. operating income (losses) (1-(4+5))

9. net salvage value (1-8)

If the project provides for the reinvestment of free cash, then the balance of accumulated real money is used to determine the flow of real money:

Current balance of real money:

b(t)=B(t)-B(t-1)

Real money flow:

Ф(t)=b(t)-Ф з (t), where Ф з (t) - costs.

Positive B(t) is free cash at the time step. To calculate B(t) at a time step, it is necessary to add to the previously calculated value of this balance at the t-first step, recalculated taking into account the result of reinvestment, the receipts included in the inflow of funds П t (t) and subtract all expenses О t (t).

When calculating real money flows, one should distinguish between inflows and outflows from income and expenses. All expenses are deducted from income and affect the amount of net income.

Not all expenses require a real money transfer, not all cash payments are funded as expenses. Purchase inventories or other property is associated with the outflow of real money, but is not an expense.

A necessary criterion for accepting an investment project is the positive balance of accumulated real money at any time step where the participant makes expenses or receives income.

The following performance criteria are used to compare projects:

4.1.1 Net present value

Represents the sum of current effects for the entire settlement period reduced to the initial step or the excess of integral results over integral costs.

NPV (NPV) \u003d (P t -Z t) * (1 / (1 + E) t), where

Р t - results achieved at the calculation step t;

Z t - costs at the same step;

T - calculation horizon (equal to the calculation step number at which the object is liquidated).

If the NPV of the investment project is positive, then the project is effective (at a given discount rate) and the issue of its adoption can be considered.

The higher the NPV, the more efficient the project. If the investment project is implemented with a negative NPV, then the investor will incur losses, that is, the project is inefficient.

In practice, a modified formula is often used to determine the NPV. To do this, capital investments are excluded from the composition of Z t and denoted by: K t - capital investments at the calculation step t; K - the amount of discounted capital investments, and through And t - costs at the calculation step t, provided that they do not include capital investments.

NPV \u003d (P t -I t) * (1 / (1 + E) t) -K

This formula expresses the difference between the sum of the reduced effects and the value of capital investments reduced to the same point in time.

4.1.2 Yield index

The yield index (IR) is the ratio of the sum of the reduced effects to the amount of investment:

ID \u003d 1 / K * (P t - AND t) * (1 / (1 + E) t), where

K - the amount of discounted capital investments or the present value of investments (DCI). That's why:

ID=NPV/DSI

The yield index is closely related to NPV. It is built from the same elements, and its value is related to the NPV value: if NPV is positive, then ID>1 and vice versa. The yield index shows the level of efficiency under one limitation - at the accepted discount rate. The internal rate of return does not have this constraint.

4.1. 3 Internal rate of return

The internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate (E BH) at which the value of the reduced effects is equal to the reduced capital investment. In other words, E VN (VND) is the solution to the equation:

(P t -I t) / (1+ E VN) t \u003d K t / (1+ E VN) t

If the calculation of the NPV of an investment project answers the question of whether it is effective or not at a given discount rate (E), then the IRR of the project is determined in the calculation process and then compared with the investor's required rate of return on invested capital.

In the case when the IRR is equal to or greater than the investor's required rate of return on capital, then the investment in this project is justified, and the issue of its adoption can be considered.

If a comparison of alternative (mutually exclusive) investment projects (project options) in terms of NPV and GNI leads to opposite results, then NPV should be preferred.

4.2 Payback period

Payback period - the minimum time interval (from the beginning of the project), beyond which the interval effect becomes and remains non-negative in the future. In other words, this is the period from which the initial investments and other costs associated with an investment project are covered by the total results of its implementation.

The results and costs associated with the implementation of the project can be calculated with or without discounting. Accordingly, two different payback periods are obtained. It is recommended to determine the payback period using discounting.

The main drawback of the payback period, as a measure of efficiency, is that it does not take into account the entire period of the investment and, therefore, it is not affected by all the returns that lie beyond it. This disadvantage is especially evident in the case when the return on investment is unequal. Opinions were expressed that the payback period should not serve as a selection criterion, but should be used only as a constraint when making a decision. If the payback period of projects is longer than the accepted limit, then it is excluded from the list of possible investment projects.

The indicator of commercial efficiency takes into account the consequences of the project implementation for its direct participants.

The budget efficiency indicator reflects the financial implications for the federal, regional and local budgets. The main indicator is the excess of revenues over expenditures of the corresponding budget in connection with the implementation of the project. The expenses include:

Funds allocated for direct budget financing;

Loans of the central, regional and authorized banks for individual participants in the project implementation, allocated as borrowed funds, subject to compensation from the budget;

Direct budget appropriations for supplements to market prices for fuel and energy carriers;

Payment of benefits for persons left without work in connection with the implementation of the project;

Payments on government securities;

State, regional guarantees of investment risks of foreign and domestic participants;

Funds allocated from the budget to eliminate the consequences that may occur during the implementation of the project emergencies and compensation for other possible damage during the implementation of the project.

Income includes:

VAT and other tax revenues, rent payments of the given year to the budget from Russian and foreign enterprises and firms - participants of the project;

Increase and decrease in tax revenues from third-party enterprises due to the impact of the project implementation on their financial position;

Incoming to the budget customs duties and excises on resources (products) produced under the project;

Share premium by issue valuable papers for the implementation of the project;

Dividends on shares and other securities;

Income tax on wages;

Payment for the use of land, water and other natural resources, payment for subsoil and

Licenses;

Repayment of concessional loans under the project;

Penalties and sanctions related to the project;

Receipts to the pension fund, employment fund, medical fund and social insurance fund.

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