Ticket 10. Social mobility: concept, types, channels
concept « social mobility» introduced by P. Sorokin. He believed that society is a huge social space in which people move both in reality and conditionally, in the opinion of others and their own.
social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of its position in the social space. According to the directions of social movements, vertical and horizontal social mobility are distinguished.
Vertical mobility- social displacement, which is accompanied by an increase or decrease in social status.
Moving to a higher social position is called upward mobility, and on the lower downward mobility.
Horizontal mobility- social displacement, not associated with a change in social status, - transfer to another place of work in the same position, change of residence. If social status changes when moving, then geographic mobility turns into migration.
By types of mobility sociologists distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational. Intergenerational mobility change in social status between generations. Intragenerational mobility associated with social career,, which means a change in status within one generation.
In accordance with the change by the individual of his social position in society, they distinguish two forms of mobility: group and individual. group mobility- movements are made collectively, and entire classes, social strata change their status. (It happens during periods of fundamental changes in society - social revolutions, civil or interstate wars, military coups). Individual mobility means the social displacement of a particular person.
Channels of social mobility may perform: school, education, family, professional organizations, army, political parties and organizations, church. Of course, in modern society, education is of particular importance, the institutions of which perform the function of a kind of "social lift" providing vertical mobility. social lift is a mechanism for raising (or lowering) social status.
At the same time, it should be noted that the processes of social mobility can be accompanied by the marginalization and lumpenization of society. Under marginality refers to an intermediate, “borderline” state of a social subject. Marginal when moving from one social group to another, he retains the old system of values, connections, habits and cannot learn new ones (migrants, the unemployed). lumpen, trying in the process of social mobility to move from the old group to the new one, finds himself outside the group altogether, breaks social ties and eventually loses basic human qualities - the ability to work and the need for it (beggars, homeless people).
The concept and types of social mobility
An analysis of the causes of social inequality always entails the question of whether an individual himself can achieve an increase in his social status and join the composition of a social stratum located above his own on the scale of wealth and prestige. In modern society, it is generally accepted that the starting opportunities for all people are equal and the individual will certainly succeed if he makes the appropriate efforts and acts purposefully. Often this idea is illustrated by examples of the dizzying careers of millionaires who started from nothing, and shepherdesses who turned into movie stars.
social mobility called the movement of individuals in the system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two main reasons for the existence of social mobility in society. First, societies change, and social change alters the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Second, although the elite may monopolize educational opportunities, it is unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata are inevitably replenished by talented people from the lower strata.
Social mobility comes in many forms:
vertical mobility- a change in the position of the individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if an auto mechanic becomes the director of a car service, this is an indication of upward mobility, but if an auto mechanic becomes a scavenger, such a movement will be an indicator of downward mobility;
horizontal mobility- a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.
A form of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility.
It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and got a job here, then this is migration.
intergenerational(intergeneration) mobility - is revealed by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the career of both (according to the rank of their profession at approximately the same age).
intragenerational(intragenerational) mobility - involves a comparison of the social status of the individual for a long time.
Classification of social mobility can be carried out according to other criteria. So, for example, one distinguishes individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur in an individual independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old ruling class cedes its positions to the new ruling class.
On other grounds, mobility can be classified, say, into spontaneous or organized. An example of spontaneous mobility can be movements for the purpose of earning residents of the near abroad in big cities Russia. Organized mobility (moving a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally) is controlled by the state. As P. Sorokin showed on a huge historical material, the following factors acted as the causes of group mobility:
social revolutions;
Foreign interventions, invasions;
Interstate wars;
Civil wars;
military coups;
Change of political regimes;
Replacing the old constitution with a new one;
Peasant uprisings;
Internecine struggle of aristocratic families;
Creation of an empire.
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The concept and parameters of social mobility
The concept of " social mobility» introduced into science by P.A. Sorokin. According to him, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.” In social mobility P.A. Sorokin included:
Movement of individuals from one social group to another;
The disappearance of some and the emergence of other social groups;
The disappearance of a whole set of groups and its complete replacement by another.
Cause of social mobility P.A. Sorokin saw the implementation in society of the principle of distribution of benefits in proportion to the merits of each of its members, because even partial implementation of this principle leads to increased social mobility and renewal of the composition of the higher strata. Otherwise, over time, these strata accumulate a large number of sluggish, incapable people, and in the low strata, on the contrary, talented people. Thus, socially combustible material is created in the form of discontent and protest in the low strata, which can lead to a revolution. To prevent this from happening, society must abandon the rigid social structure, carry out social mobility constantly and in a timely manner, improve and control it.
Factors affecting social mobility:
The level of economic development (for example, during a period of economic depression - downward mobility);
Historical type of stratification (class and caste societies limit social mobility);
Demographic factors (gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density). Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration; where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.
Indicators (parameters) of social mobility.
Social mobility is measured by two main indicators:
distance
volume.
Mobility distance- the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend. normal distance moving one or two steps up or down is considered. abnormal distance- an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or a fall to its base.
The scope of mobility called the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction in a certain period of time. If the volume is calculated by the number of moved individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number to the entire population, then - relative and is indicated as a percentage.
So, social mobility- this is the movement of an individual or a social group from one social stratum to another, or within a social stratum, a change in the place of a particular social subject in the social structure.
Types of social mobility
Exists two main types of social mobility:
Intergenerational
Intragenerational
and two main types:
vertical
Horizontal.
They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.
Intergenerational mobility- when children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.
Intragenerational mobility- the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called a social career.
Vertical mobility is the movement of an individual or social group from one stratum to another, while there is a change in social status. Depending on the direction of movement highlight the following types of vertical mobility:
Rising (social rise);
Descending (social descent).
There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, while descent is forced.
Channels of vertical mobility.
According to P.A. Sorokin, in any society between the strata there are channels("elevators"), on which individuals move up and down. Of particular interest are social institutions - army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social mobility.
Army functions most intensively as such a channel in war time. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks.
Church moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society, and vice versa. The institute of celibacy obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. So after death officials vacated positions were filled with new people. At the same time, thousands of heretics were put on trial, destroyed, among them were many kings, aristocrats.
School: the institution of education at all times served as a powerful channel of social mobility, because education was always valued, and educated people had a high status.
Own manifests itself most clearly in the form of accumulated wealth and money, which is one of the simplest and most effective ways social promotion.
Family and marriage become a channel of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union.
Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social group from one social group to another, located at the same level, i.e. without changing social status.
A kind of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.
Also distinguish individual and group mobility.
Individual mobility- moving down, up or horizontally occurs for each person independently of others.
To factors of individual mobility, those. reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another include: the social status of the family; the level of education received; nationality; physical and mental abilities; external data; received upbringing; place of residence; profitable marriage.
group mobility- Movements happen collectively. For example, after a revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class. According to P.A. Sorokin reasons for group mobility the following factors serve: social revolutions; foreign interventions; invasions; interstate wars; civil wars; military coups; change of political regimes, etc.
It is also possible to highlight organized and structural mobility.
Organized mobility occurs when the movement of an individual or social group up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state. This process can take place with the consent of the people themselves (for example, public calls for Komsomol construction projects) and without their consent (resettlement of small peoples, dispossession).
Structural mobility It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people employed in them.
During the mobility process, a state may arise marginality. This is a special sociological term for borderline, transitional, structurally indefinite social status subject. People who, for various reasons, fall out of their usual social environment and are unable to join new communities (often due to cultural inconsistencies), who experience great psychological stress and experience a kind of crisis of self-consciousness, are called outcasts. Among marginals there can be ethnomarginals, biomarginals, economic marginals, religious marginals.
The process of migration in society
Migration is the process of changing the permanent place of residence of individuals or social groups, expressed in moving to another region, geographical area or another country.
The migration process is closely related to both horizontal and vertical mobility, since each migrating individual seeks to find better economic, political or social conditions of existence in a new place.
Migration mechanism. In order for people to want to change their habitual place of residence, conditions are necessary that force them to do so. These conditions are usually divided into three main groups:
extrusion
Attraction
Migration paths.
extrusion associated with the difficult conditions of existence of the individual in his native places. The expulsion of large masses of people is associated with serious social upheavals (interethnic conflicts, wars), economic crises, and natural disasters (earthquakes, floods). With individual migration, failure in a career, the death of relatives, and loneliness can serve as a buoyant force.
Attraction- a set of attractive features or conditions for living in other places (higher wages, the opportunity to occupy a higher social status, greater political stability).
Migration paths is a characteristic of the direct movement of a migrant from one geographical location to another. Migration routes include the accessibility of a migrant, his luggage and family to another region; the presence or absence of barriers on the way; information to help overcome financial obstacles.
Distinguish international(moving from one state to another) and internal(moving within one country) migration.
Emigration- traveling outside the country . Immigration- entry into the country.
seasonal migration- depends on the season (tourism, study, agricultural work).
pendulum migration- regular movement from this point and return to it.
Migration is considered normal up to certain limits. In the event that the number of migrants exceeds a certain level, saying that migration becomes redundant. Excessive migration can lead to a change in the demographic composition of the region (departure of young people and the “aging” of the population; the predominance of men or women in the region), to a shortage or excess of labor, to uncontrolled urban growth, etc.
Literature
Volkov Yu.G., Dobrenkov V.I., Nechipurenko V.N., Popov A.V.
Sociology: textbook / ed. prof.
SOUTH. Volkov. – M.: Gardariki, 2007.- Ch. 6.
Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: a textbook for universities. - M., 2003. - Ch. eleven.
Raduev V.V., Shkaratan O.I. Social stratification: tutorial. M., 1996.
Radugin A. A., Radugin K. A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 8.
Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 9.
Frolov S.S. Sociology: textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - Ch.17.
Test tasks on the topic "Social mobility"
1. Social mobility is:
1. change by a person of the place of his permanent residence
2. change of value orientations of the individual
3. change in the social status of an individual or group
4. expansion of professional and general cultural horizons
2. The main types of social mobility are:
1. vertical and horizontal
2. intergenerational and intragenerational
3. ascending and descending
4. individual and group
3. Geographic mobility turns into migration when:
1. a person moves from one place to another, while maintaining his social status
2. a person moves from one place to another, while changing his social status
3. person moves from one nationality to another
4. a person temporarily moves from one socio-geographical zone to another
4. An example of downward social mobility can be considered:
1. promotion
2. change of religion
3. dismissal due to redundancy
4. change of profession
5. Social career should be understood as:
1. increasing the social status of representatives of subsequent generations in comparison with the status of the current
2. achievement of a higher social position by an individual compared to parents
3. change by the individual, beyond comparison with the father, several times during the life of their social positions
4. change by the individual of his position in the social and professional structure
The study of social mobility was started by P. Sorokin, who published the book “Social Mobility, Its Forms and Fluctuation” in 1927.
He wrote: “Social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual or a social object (value), i.e. everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another. There are two main types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.
Horizontal social mobility
Horizontal social mobility, or movement, refers to the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another, located at the same level. The transfer of an individual from a Baptist to a Methodist religious group, from one nationality to another, from one family (both husband and wife) to another in divorce or remarriage, from one factory to another, while maintaining his professional status - these are all examples horizontal social mobility. They are also the movement of social objects (radio, car, fashion, ideas of communism, Darwin's theory) within one social layer, like moving from Iowa to California or from some place to any other. In all these cases, "movement" can occur without any noticeable changes in the social position of the individual or social object in the vertical direction.
Vertical social mobility
Under vertical social mobility refers to those relations that arise when an individual or a social object moves from one social stratum to another. Depending on the directions of movement, there are two types of vertical mobility: upward and downward, i.e. social ascent and social descent. According to the nature of stratification, there are downward and upward flows of economic, political and occupational mobility, not to mention other less important types. Updrafts exist in two main forms: the penetration of an individual from a lower stratum into an existing higher stratum; the creation by such individuals of a new group and the penetration of the whole group into a higher stratum to the level with the already existing groups of this stratum. Accordingly, the downward currents also have two forms: the first consists in the fall of the individual from the higher initial group to which he previously belonged; another form is manifested in the degradation of the social group as a whole, in the lowering of its rank against the background of other groups, or in the destruction of its social unity. In the first case, the fall reminds us of a person who has fallen from the ship, in the second, the ship itself is submerged with all the passengers on board, or the ship crashes when it shatters.
Social mobility can be of two types: mobility as a voluntary movement or circulation of individuals within the social hierarchy; and mobility dictated by structural changes (eg industrialization and demographic factors). With urbanization and industrialization, there is a quantitative growth of professions and corresponding changes in the requirements for qualifications and vocational training. As a consequence of industrialization, there is a relative increase in the labor force, employment in the category of "white collars", a decrease in the absolute number of agricultural workers. The degree of industrialization actually correlates with the level of mobility, as it leads to an increase in the number of high-status occupations and to a fall in employment in lower-ranking occupational categories.
It should be noted that many comparative studies have shown: under the influence of forces changes in stratification systems. First of all, social differentiation is increasing. Advanced technology gives impetus to the emergence of a large number of new professions. Industrialization brings professionalism, training and rewards into greater alignment. In other words, individuals and groups are characterized by a tendency towards relatively stable positions in a ranked stratification hierarchy. The result is increased social mobility. The level of mobility increases mainly due to the quantitative growth of professions in the middle of the stratification hierarchy, i.e. due to forced mobility, although voluntary mobility is also activated, since the orientation towards achievement acquires great weight.
Equally, if not to a greater extent, the level and nature of mobility is influenced by the system of social organization. Scholars have long drawn attention to the qualitative differences in this respect between open and closed societies. AT open society there are no formal mobility restrictions and almost no abnormal ones.
A closed society, with a rigid structure preventing the increase in mobility, thereby resists instability.
Social mobility would be more correct to call reverse side the same problem of inequality, because, as noted by M. Butl, “social inequality is intensified and legitimized in the process of social mobility, the function of which is to divert to safe channels and contain discontent.
AT closed society upward mobility is limited not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, therefore individuals who have reached the top, but do not receive the share of social benefits that they expected, begin to consider the existing order as an obstacle to achieving their legitimate goals and strive for radical changes. Among those whose mobility is directed downwards, in a closed society there often turn out to be those who, by education and abilities, are more prepared for leadership than the bulk of the population - it is from them that the leaders of the revolutionary movement are formed at a time when the contradictions of society lead to conflict in it. classes.
In an open society where there are few barriers to upward movement, those who rise tend to diverge from the political orientation of the class into which they have passed. The behavior of those who lower their position looks similar. Thus, those who rise to the top stratum are less conservative than the permanent members of the top stratum. On the other hand, the "thrown down" are more left than the stable members of the lower stratum. Therefore, the movement as a whole contributes to the stability and at the same time the dynamism of an open society.
Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal.
At horizontal mobility, the social movement of individuals and social groups occurs in other, but equal in status social communities. These can be considered as moving from state structures to private ones, moving from one enterprise to another, etc. Varieties of horizontal mobility are: territorial (migration, tourism, relocation from village to city), professional (change of profession), religious (change of religion) , political (transition from one political party to another).
At vertical mobility is happening ascending and descending movement of people. An example of such mobility is the demotion of workers from the "hegemon" in the USSR to the simple class in today's Russia and, conversely, the rise of speculators to the middle and upper class. Vertical social movements are associated, firstly, with profound changes in the socio-economic structure of society, the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to win a higher social status, and secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems and norms. , political priorities. In this case, there is an upward movement of those political forces that were able to catch changes in the mindsets, orientations and ideals of the population.
To quantify social mobility, indicators of its speed are used. Under speed social mobility refers to the vertical social distance and the number of strata (economic, professional, political, etc.) that individuals go through in their movement up or down in a certain period of time. For example, a young specialist after graduation can take the positions of a senior engineer or head of a department for several years, etc.
Intensity social mobility is characterized by the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal position for a certain period of time. The number of such individuals gives absolute intensity of social mobility. For example, during the years of reforms in post-Soviet Russia (1992-1998), up to one-third of the “Soviet intelligentsia”, who made up the middle class of Soviet Russia, became “shuttle traders.
Aggregate index social mobility includes its speed and intensity. In this way one can compare one society with another in order to find out (1) in which of them or (2) in what period social mobility is higher or lower in all indicators. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional, political and other social mobility. Social mobility is an important characteristic of the dynamic development of society. Those societies where the total index of social mobility is higher develop much more dynamically, especially if this index belongs to the ruling strata.
Social (group) mobility is associated with the emergence of new social groups and affects the ratio of the main social strata, whose status no longer corresponds to the existing hierarchy. By the middle of the 20th century, for example, managers (managers) became such a group. large enterprises. On the basis of this fact in Western sociology, the concept of the "revolution of managers" (J. Bernheim) has developed. According to it, the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, supplementing and displacing the class of owners of the means of production (capitalists).
Social movements along the vertical are intensively going on during the restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups promotes mass movement up the ladder of social status. The fall of the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provoke not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal strata, losing their usual position in society, losing the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of values and norms that previously united them and determined their stable place in the social hierarchy.
Outcasts - these are social groups that have lost their former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in their usual activities, and found themselves unable to adapt to the new sociocultural (value and normative) environment. Their former values and norms did not succumb to the displacement of new norms and values. The efforts of marginals to adapt to new conditions give rise to psychological stress. The behavior of such people is characterized by extremes: they are either passive or aggressive, and also easily violate moral standards, capable of unpredictable actions. A typical leader of the outcasts in post-Soviet Russia is V. Zhirinovsky.
During periods of acute social cataclysms, a radical change in the social structure, an almost complete renewal of the highest echelons of society can occur. Thus, the events of 1917 in our country led to the overthrow of the old ruling classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) and the rapid rise of a new ruling stratum (communist party bureaucracy) with nominally socialist values and norms. Such a cardinal replacement of the upper stratum of society always takes place in an atmosphere of extreme confrontation and tough struggle.
Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying on the same level. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs, or social status. Examples of horizontal mobility are movements from one citizenship to another, from an Orthodox religious group to a Catholic one, from one labor collective to another, and so on.
Such movements occur without a noticeable change in the social position in the upright position.
A variation of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.
If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to permanent place residence and got a job, then this is already migration.
Consequently, horizontal mobility can be territorial, religious, professional, political (when only the political orientation of the individual changes). Horizontal mobility is described by nominal parameters and can only exist with a certain degree of heterogeneity in society.
Regarding horizontal mobility, P. Sorokin only says that it means the transition of people from one social group to another without changing their social status. But if we proceed from the principle that all differences without exception in the world of people have some kind of unequal significance, it will be necessary to recognize that horizontal social mobility must also be characterized by a change in social position, only not ascending or descending, but progressive or retreating (regressing) . Thus, horizontal mobility can be considered any process that leads to the formation or change of class social structures - in contrast to the starting ones, which are formed and changed as a result of vertical social mobility.
Today, it is horizontal mobility that is gaining momentum in society, especially among residents of large cities. For young people, it becomes a rule to change jobs every 3-5 years. At the same time, most sociologists welcome this, believing that such an approach allows a person not to be “conserved” in one place and an invariable range of tasks. Secondly, a considerable part of workers prefers to master related specialties or even radically change their field of activity.
A change of residence - and it is also a type of lateral mobility - often complements a change of job, even if new job located in the same city - there are people who prefer to rent an apartment closer, just not to spend two and a half hours a day on the road.
The meaning of vertical mobility is completely transparent - many people want to improve their position. Much more interesting is the question of what drives horizontal social mobility.
First of all, it becomes noticeable that in recent years the so-called social elevators have ceased to work: that is, the number of opportunities to take and jump to a higher social level in one fell swoop is decreasing. Isolated cases are possible, but for the majority this move is closed. And horizontal mobility is, in principle, available to almost everyone.
Horizontal mobility allows you to significantly expand your horizons, it does not force you to significantly change your habits, lifestyle.
The essence of social mobility
We have already noted the complexity and multi-level nature of the social system. The theory of social stratification (see the previous section "Social stratification") is designed to describe the rank structure of society, its main features and patterns of existence and development, and the socially significant functions it performs. However, it is obvious that, having once received a status, a person does not always remain the bearer of this status throughout his life. For example, the status of a child, sooner or later, is lost, and it is replaced by a whole set of statuses associated with the adult state.
Society is in constant motion and development. The social structure is changing, people are changing, performing certain social roles, occupying certain status positions. Accordingly, individuals as the main elements of the social structure of society are also in constant motion. To describe this movement of the individual through the social structure of society, there is a theory of social mobility. Its author is Pitirim Sorokin, who in 1927 introduced into sociological science the concept social mobility.
In the most general sense, under social mobility is understood as a change in the status of an individual or a social group, as a result of which he (she) changes his position in the social structure, acquires new role sets, changes his characteristics on the main scales of stratification. P. Sorokin himself determined social mobility as any transition of an individual or a social object (value), that is, everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.
In the process of social mobility, there is a constant redistribution of individuals within the framework of the social structure in accordance with the principles of social differentiation existing in this system. That is, one or another social subsystem always has a set of requirements fixed or enshrined in tradition, which are presented to those who wish to become actors in this subsystem. Accordingly, ideally, the one who best meets these requirements will be the most successful.
For example, university education requires young men and women to learn curriculum, while the main criterion is the effectiveness of this assimilation, which is checked during the credit and examination sessions. Anyone who does not meet the minimum level of requirements for his knowledge loses the opportunity to continue learning. The one who learns the material more successfully than the others increases his chances for the effective use of the education received (admission to graduate school, familiarization with scientific activity, high paying job specialty). Conscientious performance his social role contributes to a change for the better social situation. Thus, the social system stimulates the types of individual and collective activity that are desirable for it.
Typology of social mobility
Within the framework of modern sociology, several types and types of social mobility are distinguished, which are designed to enable complete description the whole gamut of social movements. First of all, there are two types of social mobility - horizontal mobility and vertical mobility.
Horizontal mobility
- this is a transition from one social position to another, but located on the same social level. For example, a change of residence, a change of religion (in religiously tolerant social systems).
Vertical mobility
- this is a transition from one social position to another with a change in the level of social stratification. That is, with vertical mobility, there is an improvement or deterioration in social status. In this regard, two subtypes of vertical mobility are distinguished:
a) upward mobility- moving up the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, improving one's status (for example, getting the next military rank, moving a student to a senior year or receiving a diploma of graduation from a university);
b) downward mobility- moving down the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, worsening one's status (for example, cutting wages entailing a change in the stratum, expulsion from the university for poor progress, which entails a significant narrowing of the possibilities for further social growth).
Vertical mobility can be individual and group.
Individual mobility occurs when an individual member of society changes his social status. He leaves his old status niche or stratum and moves into a new state. To factors individual mobility sociologists include social origin, level of education, physical and mental abilities, external data, place of residence, advantageous marriage, specific actions that can often negate the effect of all previous factors (for example, a criminal offense, a heroic deed).
group mobility is especially often observed in conditions of a change in the very system of stratification of a given society, when the social significance large social groups.
You can also highlight organized mobility when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally in the social structure is authorized by the state or is a purposeful state policy. At the same time, such actions can be carried out both with the consent of people (voluntary recruitment of construction teams) and without it (curtailment of rights and freedoms, resettlement of ethnic groups).
In addition, it is of great importance structural mobility. It is caused by structural changes in the entire social system. For example, industrialization led to a significant increase in the need for cheap labor, which, in turn, led to a significant restructuring of the entire social structure, which made it possible to recruit this very labor force. Reasons that can cause structural mobility include a change in the economic structure, social revolutions, a change in the political system or political regime, foreign occupation, invasions, interstate and civil military conflicts.
Finally, sociology distinguishes intragenerational (intragenerational) and intergenerational (intergenerational) social mobility. Intragenerational mobility describes changes in the status distribution within a certain age group, "generation", which allows you to track the overall dynamics of the inclusion or distribution of this group in social system. For example, information about what part of today's Ukrainian youth is studying or has studied at universities, what part would like to be trained can be very important. Such information allows monitoring of many relevant social processes. Knowing common features social mobility in a given generation, it is possible to objectively assess the social development of a particular individual or a small group included in this generation. Path social development, which an individual goes through in his life, is called social career.
Intergenerational mobility characterizes changes in social distribution in groups of different generations. Such an analysis makes it possible to monitor long-term social processes, to establish patterns of social career in various social groups and communities. For example, which social strata are most or least affected by upward or downward mobility? An objective answer to this question allows us to reveal the ways of social stimulation in certain social groups, the features of the social environment that determine the desire (or lack of it) for social growth.
Channels of social mobility
How, within the framework of the stable social structure of society, does social mobility, that is, the movement of individuals along this very social structure? It is obvious that such a movement within the framework is difficult organized system cannot occur spontaneously, disorganized, chaotically. Unorganized, spontaneous movements are possible only during periods of social instability, when the social structure is shattered, loses stability, and collapses. In a stable social structure, significant movements of individuals occur in strict accordance with a developed system of rules for such movements (stratification system). In order to change his status, an individual most often must not only have the desire to do so, but also receive approval from the social environment. Only in this case is a real change in status possible, which will mean a change by the individual of his position within the framework of the social structure of society. So, if a boy or girl decides to become students of a certain university (acquire the status of a student), then their desire will be only the first step towards the status of a student of this university. Obviously, in addition to personal aspirations, it is also important that the applicant meets the requirements that apply to everyone who has expressed a desire to study in this specialty. Only after confirmation of such compliance (for example, during entrance examinations) does the applicant achieve the assignment of the desired status to him - the applicant becomes a student.
In modern society, the social structure of which is very complex and institutionalized, most social movements are associated with certain social institutions. That is, most statuses exist and have meaning only within the framework of specific social institutions. The status of a student or teacher cannot exist in isolation from the institution of education; the status of a doctor or a patient - in isolation from the Institute of Public Health; Candidate or Doctor of Science statuses are outside the Institute of Science. This gives rise to the idea of social institutions as a kind of social spaces within which most of the changes in status occur. Such spaces are called channels of social mobility.
In the strict sense, under channel of social mobility
such social structures, mechanisms, methods that can be used to implement social mobility. As mentioned above, in modern society, social institutions most often act as such channels. The political authorities, political parties, public organizations, economic structures, professional labor organizations and unions, army, church, education system, family and clan ties. Organized crime structures are also of great importance today, which have their own mobility system, but often have a strong influence on the “official” mobility channels (for example, corruption).
In their totality, the channels of social mobility act as an integral system, complementing, limiting, and stabilizing each other's activities. As a result, we can talk about a universal system of institutional and legal procedures movement of individuals along the stratification structure, which is a complex mechanism of social selection. In the event of any attempt by an individual to improve his social position, that is, to increase his social status, he will be “tested” to one degree or another for compliance with the requirements for the bearer of this status. Such a “test” can be formal (exam, testing), semi-formal ( probation, interview) and informal (the decision is made solely due to the personal inclinations of the testers, but based on their ideas about the desirable qualities of the subject) procedures.
For example, in order to enter a university, you must pass an entrance exam. But in order to be accepted into a new family, you need to go through a long process of getting to know each other. existing rules, traditions, confirm their loyalty to them, get the approval of the dominant members of this family. It is obvious that in each case there is both a formal need to meet certain requirements (level of knowledge, special training, physical data), and a subjective assessment of the efforts of the individual by the examiners. Depending on the situation, either the first or the second component is more important.