Introduction
1. Characteristics of the expenses of the enterprise and their role in its financial activities
2. Determination of the costs of production and sales of products
2.1. Classification of expenses according to various criteria
2.2. Methods and methods for determining costs
2.3. Sources of financing the costs of production and sale of products
3. Calculation of production and sales costs
Conclusion
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Any business structure in the process of functioning consumes resources - material, labor, financial. Consumed resources form the costs of the enterprise - the most important economic indicator of its activities.
The formation of production costs at the enterprise is the key and at the same time the most complex element formation and development of the production and economic mechanism of the enterprise, covered by the system of managerial financial accounting.
The enterprise in the course of its activities bears various costs in terms of economic content and purpose: for the production and sale of products, expansion and improvement of production; satisfaction of various socio-cultural needs of members of the labor collective and others. When income exceeds expenses, the excess amount is sent to the reserve fund. When expenses exceed income, the amount of the lack of financial resources is replenished by issuing securities, obtaining loans, and receiving charitable contributions.
The task of the course work is to consider how the financing of the costs of production and sale of products at the enterprise is carried out.
The purpose of this work is to disclose the concept of income, consideration of their classification, methods and methods for their determination, sources of funding. Also, using the example of the enterprise Rus LLC, we will calculate the costs of production and sales of products.
1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXPENSES OF THE ENTERPRISE AND THEIR ROLE IN ITS FINANCIAL ACTIVITIES
The PBU accounting standard defines an organization's expenses as a reduction in its economic benefits resulting from the disposal of assets ( Money, other property) and (or) the occurrence of obligations leading to a decrease in the capital of this organization, with the exception of a decrease in contributions by decision of the participants (owners) of the property. Expenditure is the outflow of economic benefits of this particular organization. Therefore, the amounts collected by the organization on behalf of third parties and transferred to their address (for example, indirect taxes - VAT, excises, sales tax, etc.) are not expenses.
The acquisition or creation of fixed assets and other elements of non-working capital also represents a decrease in economic benefits as a result of the disposal of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the incurrence of liabilities, however, the accounting standard (PBU 10/99) includes capital expenditures in the list of those items that are not recognized as expenses. They are characterized as conditional, deferred expenses and are subject to capitalization on the balance sheet of the organization, forming the initial cost of elements of non-circulating capital (fixed assets and intangible assets). Investment costs can be recognized as expenses in future reporting periods - as depreciation is accrued and included in its cost of sold (sold) products or as part of management expenses if the organization applies the limited cost calculation method.
PBU 10/99 defines the conditions for accounting for expenses when forming a financial result (profit) in accounting. Expenses are recognized in the income statement:
Taking into account the relationship between production costs and receipts
(correspondence of income and expenses);
By their reasonable distribution between the reporting periods,
when expenses cause receipt of income during several reporting periods and when the relationship between income and expenses cannot be clearly determined or is determined indirectly;
For expenses recognized in the reporting period, when they become
certain non-receipt of economic benefits (income) or receipt of assets;
Regardless of how they are taken for the purpose of calculation
tax base;
When circumstances arise that are not due to the recognition of the underlying assets.
Tax legislation also operates with the concept of "expenses". Since January 1, 2002, the object of taxation for income tax in accordance with the Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Article 247) is profit, defined as income reduced by the amount of expenses incurred. In this case, reasonable and documented expenses (in cases provided for in Article 265 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, and losses) incurred by the taxpayer are recognized as expenses. Justified costs are understood as economically justified costs, the assessment of which is expressed in monetary terms. Expenses are expenses that are associated with activities aimed at generating income.
Tax legislation gives its own, different from accounting, classification of expenses. Expenses for tax purposes are divided into:
For expenses related to production and sale;
non-operating expenses.
Non-operating expenses include reasonable costs for activities not directly related to production and (or) sales.
The market provides economic entities with independence in matters of setting prices for products, taking into account the emerging supply and demand. Under these conditions, the company should strive to plan the level of its costs in such a way as to make its activities profitable, and then organize production in such a way as to ensure this acceptable level of costs and the possibility of its constant reduction. Cost information is required:
For optimal decision making at all stages of the life cycle
each product and firm as a whole;
Development of a strategy for survival and ensuring competitive
Benefits;
Organization of an effective system of staff incentives;
Optimization of tax payments;
Establishing and maintaining relationships with tax and other government agencies in compliance with the law.
In order to keep up with competitors, each independent production organization must carefully plan the development of its own production and market needs for at least 2-3 years. Any miscalculations at the same time threaten with losses and even complete ruin. An enterprise needs to provide a perspective to the smallest detail at each stage, from the development of a product design and ending with its sale, and then the cessation of production and entering the market with new products. Everything must be linked to the economy of the enterprise, the tax system and the credit situation, the position of the enterprise in the market and the intentions of competitors, the situation outside the enterprise.
Cost planning tasks include:
Ensuring the production and trade process with the necessary
financial resources. Determination of the planned volumes of the necessary funds and the direction of their spending;
Establishment of financial relations with the budget, banks, insurance organizations and other business entities;
Identification of the ways of the most rational investment of capital and reserves for its effective use;
Increasing profits through the economical use of cash
Control over the formation and spending of funds.
Enterprise cost planning - this is an accurate prediction and programming for the future of the course of the production process and its results in stages. In the plan, taking into account the specialization and cooperation of labor, a clear task is established by dates for the performance of a specific type and volume of work and the expenditure of resources for each workshop, department, team and worker. The plan provides for a sequence of related activities.
The plan is always directed to the future. With its help, the available resources (material, labor, financial and natural) are distributed for the future. Planners need relevant information to develop a plan. In addition to forecast and marketing data, that is, mainly external information, a large amount of internal information enters the planning authorities. Collection and generalization of incoming information, its analysis refers to the preplanned work of specialists. Pre-planning work is as necessary as the development of the plan itself.
Drawing up a plan for the expenses of an enterprise begins with the preparation of a draft of its individual parts: a plan for the production and sale of products; logistics plan; plan for personnel and wages; long-term plan for new technology and capital investments; financial plan.
Information about the company's expenses is extremely important both for the company itself and for external users - its counterparties. External users include governments, tax authorities, investors, creditors and consumers. Cost data for this category of users should be compiled in accordance with accepted standards accounting and financial reporting as well as tax laws. The development of these documents aims to protect interested organizations from receiving false information about the company. The regulatory framework governing the formation and presentation of data on the company's expenses for external users in Russia includes accounting and financial reporting standards of the Russian Federation: PBU 1/98 "Accounting policy of the organization" (Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 9, 1998), PBU 10 / 99 "Expenses of the organization" (Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated May 6, 1998). Specific requirements for tax accounting of expenses are defined in the Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Chapter 25).
Thus, we can conclude that the costs are one of the most important elements of building the management of the organization. Without expenses, the financial activity of the organization is also impossible.
2 DETERMINATION OF PRODUCTION AND SALES COSTS
2.1 Classification of expenses according to various criteria
Cost management is a whole set of methods, processes and specific procedures for managing the resources of an organization. This topic can be considered from several positions, from the point of view of traditional economic theory, from the point of view of accounting, from the point of view of management. Of course, an integrated approach to this issue is required to implement effective cost management. However, as practice shows, it is better to carry out the synthesis of knowledge based on specific practical conditions, the task and goals of the organization. The construction of theoretical foundations requires a certain distinction in approaches. This is easy to explain, for example, by dividing expenses into economic and accounting.
Accounting is understood as the actual costs of factors of production purchased at market prices. Under the economic understand the "expenses of missed opportunities", that is, the amount of money that can be obtained with the most profitable of all possible alternative options for the use of resources.
Based on this, we can conclude that from an accounting point of view, it is necessary to minimize the actual costs, and the economic approach will require the search for the most profitable allocation of resources. And it is impossible to determine with complete certainty the most correct option for solving the problem, since both options are rational.
Traditionally, it is customary to consider the process of cost management from their definition and classification. Below are the most common cost definitions.
The expenses of the enterprise are the expenses that the enterprise incurs in the course of its economic activities.
Expenses are the resources consumed in the course of the activities of the enterprise.
Many economists equate costs with costs.
Cost of production is the cost of labor and capital to produce a good.
From their point of view, expenses are the resources consumed in the course of an enterprise's activities. They are divided, first of all, into constants and variables.
Fixed costs - costs that occur regardless of the volume of production (expenses for the maintenance of buildings, administrative apparatus).
Such a division of costs can be considered based on the fact that the amount of fixed costs in the short term will be constant, and variable costs may change, that is, these costs will be important, since they can be quickly managed. However, in the economic literature, the rationale for such a classification comes primarily from the impact of these costs on the volume of production. Moreover, variable costs are fixed per unit of output, and constant costs for the entire volume of production are variable per unit of output. But the behavior of variables, just like fixed costs, with changes in output is not as straightforward as it might seem. For example, the cost of basic materials with one purchase volume will be purchased at the same price, and with another, higher purchase volume, possibly lower, as a discount system will operate. And from this point of view, it is not the costs that will affect the volume of production, but the volume of production at the enterprise can serve as one of the methods of cost management.
The division of costs into fixed and variable, as well as the allocation of general, average and marginal costs does not allow for the analysis of the cost of production necessary for the enterprise. It is in this issue that the need for an accounting approach arises. Below is a breakdown of expenses.
Table 2.1.
Classification of enterprise expenses
|
signs |
|
|
1. By responsibility centers (according to the place of occurrence of expenses) |
Costs of production, workshop, technical redistribution site, service |
|
2. By types of products, works, services |
Expenses for products, typical representatives of products, groups of homogeneous products, one-time orders, semi-finished products, gross marketable, sold products |
|
3. According to the unity of the composition (homogeneity) of expenses |
Single element, complex |
|
4. By type of expenses |
Expenses by economic elements, expenses by calculation items |
|
5. By methods of transferring value to products |
Direct, indirect |
|
6. By the degree of influence of production volume on the level of costs |
Variables, constants |
|
7. By calendar periods |
Current, long-term, one-time |
|
8. According to the expediency of spending |
productive, unproductive |
|
9. By definition, the relationship to the cost of production |
Product costs, period costs |
From the point of view of the analysis of the cost of production, it is important to classify expenses according to economic elements and costing items.
Operating expenses are grouped according to the following economic indicators:
Material costs;
Labor costs;
Contributions for social events;
Depreciation;
Other operating expenses.
The grouping of costs associated with the production of products is carried out according to the following costing items:
Raw materials and materials;
Purchased semi-finished products and components, works and services of an industrial nature of third-party enterprises and organizations;
Fuel and energy for technological purposes;
Returnable waste (subtracted);
Basic salary;
Additional salary;
Social security contributions;
Expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment;
General production expenses;
Loss from marriage;
Other operating expenses;
Related products (subtracted).
The grouping of expenses by calculation items of expenses reflects their composition depending on the direction of expenses and the place of their occurrence.
From the point of view of management, the cost management process will be based on the construction of such an organizational structure, which will exclude "extra" expenses. Such a structure can be compared to a clock mechanism, where there are no unnecessary parts, and each performs its function.
Currently, within the framework of certain economic concepts, the concept of expenses has been significantly expanded. The new institutional theory highlights transaction costs. In accordance with one of their classifications, there are:
Information retrieval costs – time and resources spent on obtaining and processing information about prices, about goods and services of interest, about available suppliers and consumers;
Negotiating costs;
Expenses for measuring the quantity and quality of goods and services entering into exchange - expenses for measurements, measuring equipment, losses from remaining errors and inaccuracies;
Expenses for the specification and protection of property rights - expenses for the maintenance of courts, arbitration, government bodies, as well as the time and resources required to restore violated rights;
Costs of opportunistic behavior.
In fact, it is formed new approach to the economy as a whole. But a unified theory in this direction has not been formed, which opens extensive opportunities for new scientific research.
Thus, we can conclude that the costs, being the most important object of the management process of the organization, require a comprehensive study. One of the aspects of the study is their classification, that is, the division into groups according to a certain attribute. Knowing the types of expenses, it is easier for an organization to plan and spend them.
2.2 Methods and methods for determining costs
At manufacturing enterprises, cost accounting can be organized by various methods, depending on the method: cost estimates, the nature of the production process, the completeness of the inclusion of costs in the cost of production.
Depending on the method of estimating costs, there are methods for accounting for them at actual, standard and planned (forecast) cost.
When using the method of accounting for expenses at actual cost, the amount of actual expenses for the reporting period is determined by the formula
R f = K f x C f, (2.1.)
where R f - actual costs;
K f - the actual amount of resources used;
C F - the actual price of the resources used.
The advantage of this method is the simplicity of calculations. The disadvantages include:
Lack of regulations to control the amount of resources used and their prices;
The impossibility of identifying and analyzing the places, perpetrators and causes of deviations;
Calculation of expenses only at the end of the reporting period.
The normative method of cost accounting, compared with the previous method, allows you to evaluate not only what the costs were, but also what they should be.
The normative method is based on the compilation of a normative calculation according to the norms in force at the beginning of the calendar period and the subsequent identification of deviations from these norms and standards during the production cycle of manufacturing products.
A deviation from the norms is considered both savings and additional consumption of raw materials, materials, wages and other production costs.
With this method, the actual cost of production is determined by adding (subtracting) to the standard cost of the share of deviations from the norms for each article according to the formula
C f \u003d C n ± O n, (2.2.)
where C f - the actual cost of production;
C n - the standard cost of production;
O n - deviation of the actual cost of production from its standard cost.
Regulatory is understood as current (current) cost rates, adjusted for changes in technology, etc. In practice, various standards are used: only by quantity, only by prices, by quantity and by prices at the same time.
When using standards only by quantity, the formula is applied:
P \u003d C f x (K n ± O k), (2.3.)
where O to - deviation of actual costs from the standard, caused by a change in the amount of resources used.
When using standards only for the price of used resources, the formula is applied
P \u003d (C n ± O c) x K F, (2.4.)
where O c - deviation of actual costs from the standard, caused by price changes.
When using the standards for both the quantity and the prices of the resources used, the formula is applied
P \u003d (C n ± O c) x (K n ± O c), (2.5.)
The main advantages of this method:
Ability to control costs by compiling standard calculations;
Ability to control costs by comparing their actual values with the standard ones;
The ability to identify and analyze the places, causes and perpetrators of deviations of actual costs from the normative ones;
The ability to take prompt action during the production process, and not only at the end of the reporting period, etc.
The disadvantages of this method include an increase in the complexity of accounting and computational work and the need to organize accounting both within the limits of expenditure norms and for deviations from them.
When using the cost accounting method at the planned cost price, allowable costs for products and a unit of product are taken as a basis, based on progressive consumption rates for materials, fuel, energy, wages and other costs, as well as available reserves. The main advantage of this method is that the planned costs are not based on the achieved level, but on the forecast of the future. In this case, technological documentation is used, information about the prices of suppliers for the following periods, expert opinions and etc.
In practice, ideal and achievable standards can be used as planned spending rates.
Ideal standards show what a company's costs should be under optimal conditions. This goal, which should be guided by the entire policy of cost management in the enterprise.
Achievable standards are set taking into account the real conditions of the functioning of enterprises: the quality of the resources used, the percentage of waste, marriage, etc. Such standards make it possible to more realistically assess the future costs of the enterprise, but they cannot stimulate their reduction.
Standards are set for all types of expenses. The form of expenses is similar to the formula used in accounting at standard cost:
P \u003d (C n ± O c) x (K n ± O k), (2.6.)
where n is the index of the planned value of the corresponding values.
The method of accounting for expenses at the planned cost retains all the positive features of the standard method, but in comparison with it it has an additional advantage: a deeper validity of the planned values compared to the standard ones ensures the accuracy of forecasts and the effectiveness of control.
The transverse (by-process) method of accounting is used in industries where the finished product is obtained as a result of sequential processing of the source material at separate technologically discontinuous stages, phases or redistributions.
Redistribution is such a set of technological operations that ends with the development of an intermediate product (semi-finished product) or the receipt of a finished finished product.
The list of redistributions (phases, stages of production) for which costs are accounted for and the cost of production is calculated, the procedure for determining costing groups of products and calculating the cost of work in progress or its assessment are established in industry instructions. Direct accounts are taken into account for each stage, and indirect - for the workshop, production, enterprise as a whole, with subsequent distribution between the cost of production of stages according to the accepted distribution bases.
The cross-cutting method is used in the production of sausage, canning, beer and non-alcoholic products, etc.
There are two variants of the cost accounting method: semi-finished and non-semi-finished. With the semi-finished version, the products of each previous processing stage are a semi-finished product for subsequent processing stages or are sold to the side. In the non-semi-finished version, for each processing stage, only processing costs are taken into account. The cost of finished products is calculated by summing up the costs of raw materials, starting materials, the costs of all redistributions for processing and overhead costs. In this case, only the cost is calculated finished products.
The custom method of cost accounting can be used in individual, small-scale, pilot production and repair work. With the order-by-order method, the object of accounting and costing is a separate production order issued for a predetermined number of products (products).
With this method, the costs of workshops are taken into account for individual orders and costing items, and the costs of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy - for separate groups. All primary documents is compiled with the obligatory indication of the number (ciphers) of orders. The actual cost of a unit of products or work is determined after the completion of the order by dividing the amount of costs for the order by the number of products manufactured for this order.
Direct costs are taken into account in the context of workshops and orders based on primary documents. Indirect costs are included in the cost of orders by distribution in proportion to the distribution base adopted at the enterprise.
The custom method can be used in clothing production, shipbuilding, etc.
In most cases, in the practical activities of organizations and enterprises, hybrid (mixed) methods are used, combining elements of both the transverse and custom methods. Hybrid methods are common in serial and mass production (confectionery, clothing, etc.). The most promising hybrid method is step-by-step; when using it, the main object of accounting for expenses is the operation.
The costs for each operation are distributed among the units of products that have passed this operation, in proportion to the average value of the added costs. The cost of basic materials is attributed to a certain type of product in a similar way to the order method. The advantage of the step-by-step method is the "binding" of the cost estimate to the technological process. In Western countries, this method is known as the "ABC method".
Depending on the completeness of the inclusion of costs in the cost of production, they are taken into account in the context of the full or reduced cost.
With the method of accounting for expenses at full cost, it includes all the costs of the enterprise, regardless of their division into fixed and variable, direct and indirect. Costs that cannot be directly attributed to products are first allocated to the responsibility centers where they occurred, and then transferred to the cost of production in proportion to the selected base. Most often, the distribution base is the wages of production workers, production costs, etc.
This method allows you to get an idea of all the costs that an enterprise incurs in connection with the production and sale of one product.
This method is widely used and complies with both the traditions that have developed in Russia and the requirements of regulatory acts on financial accounting and taxation. However, he does not take into account one important circumstance: the unit cost of a product changes with a change in the volume of output. If the enterprise expands production and sales, then the unit cost of production decreases, if it decreases, then the cost increases.
In modern economic conditions, the advantage should be given to the method of accounting for expenses at reduced cost - the marginal method of accounting, according to which not all the costs of the enterprise are written off for products, but only part of them - variable costs (shop production cost). The difference between the proceeds from the sale of products and variable costs represents marginal income - the part of the proceeds that remains to cover fixed costs and generate profits. At the same time, fixed costs are not included in the cost of production and are not attributed to a decrease in the profit of the period when such costs arose.
Marginal income plays a very important active role, signaling the overall level of profitability of both the entire production and individual products.
Therefore, the higher the difference between the selling price of products and the sum of variable costs, the higher the marginal income and the level of profitability. The division of costs into fixed and variable plays an important role for the management and analysis of the enterprise, in particular for making decisions on assortment policy, as well as closing or declaring bankruptcy in case of unprofitable activities.
The main advantage of this method is the separation of fixed and variable costs. This allows you to solve the most important problems of cost management, namely:
Determine the lower limit of the price of products or orders;
Conduct a comparative analysis of the profitability of various types of products;
Determine the optimal program for the production and sale of products;
Choose between own production products or services and their purchase on the side;
Choose the optimal production technology from an economic point of view;
Determine the break-even point and margin of safety of the enterprise.
However, this method also has disadvantages:
There is no calculation of the full cost of production, required by law;
The cost of inventories of work in progress and finished goods is underestimated;
Difficulties arise in separating fixed and variable costs, which largely depend on the length of the period under review and the analyzed range of output volumes.
Thus, all of the above methods for determining costs are most often applicable to the main production at the enterprise. A number of methods are also used in ancillary industries. A company can use several methods at the same time. However, the need to keep in mind that the transition from using one method to using another should be reflected in the accounting policy of the enterprise.
2.3 Sources of financing for production and sales costs
products
The direct source of the formation of accumulation funds and consumption funds is the net profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise. Here, gratuitous financial investments of third-party enterprises and organizations are not considered as a source of formation of enterprise funds, since they are not typical for enterprises of the Ministry of Defense, with the exception of replenishing their own working capital at the expense of the estimate of the Ministry of Defense.
By distributing net profit to consumption funds and accumulation funds, the directions for its further targeted use are determined. Directions for the targeted use of funds from accumulation funds formed at the expense of the net profit of a construction organization are:
Financing the costs of technical re-equipment and reconstruction of construction production;
Construction of new facilities of our own production base;
Financing the costs of mastering the production of new, conversion products;
Introduction of new progressive technologies of building production;
Carrying out research, development and design and survey work;
Financing the growth of own working capital, as well as compensation for their shortfall;
Creation and development of auxiliary industries and farms;
Thus, the accumulation funds are intended to finance the costs associated with the modernization of the own production and technological base of construction organizations.
Directions for the targeted use of funds from consumption funds formed at the expense of the net profit of a construction organization are:
Provision of gratuitous material assistance to employees of the enterprise;
Financing other social spending;
Material incentives for labor collectives and individual workers;
Financing the costs of training personnel, if, according to the law, these costs are attributed to the net profit of the enterprise;
Funding for charitable events (in excess of the norms, established by the system income tax relief).
Thus, consumption funds are intended to finance non-production expenses, as well as to provide material incentives for employees.
Also, the finances of an enterprise can be directed to a reserve fund - in a joint-stock company a special monetary fund intended to cover its losses, as well as to redeem bonds and buy back company shares in the absence of other funds. In accordance with the Federal Law "On Joint Stock Companies" dated November 24, 1995, it is created in the amount provided for by the charter of the company, but not less than 15% of its authorized capital. R.f. formed by mandatory annual contributions. The amount of annual deductions is provided for by the charter of the company, but cannot be less than 5% of net profit (until the established amount is reached). R.f. cannot be used for other purposes. It can also be created in limited liability companies.
Thus, there are a lot of sources of financing the expenses of the enterprise. The main ones are profit from taxes, reserve, cash funds, net profit and others. The main thing is that the enterprise reasonably manages these sources and directs them in the right direction.
3 CALCULATION OF PRODUCTION AND SALES COSTS
PRODUCTS
The settlement object is OOO Rus.
The enterprise "Rus" was registered by the administration of the Ketovsky district of the Kurgan region on April 23, 1987. The form of business organization of the enterprise is a limited liability company, which was created and exists under the legislation of the Russian Federation. The activities of the Company are carried out in accordance with Russian legislation (including the Civil Code of the Russian Federation of October 21, 1994 and federal law RF ""On Joint-Stock Companies"" of November 24, 1995) and this Charter. The Company is a legal entity, has separate property and is liable for its obligations with this property; The Society has its own seal with its name.
Society is a commercial organization whose main purpose is to make a profit. The Company has the right to carry out any activities not prohibited by law. The main activity of the company is the production of costumes.
The financial activity of the enterprise is aimed at creating financial results for production and social development enterprises by increasing labor productivity, reducing costs, improving the quality of products (works, services), improving the use of fixed assets. Accounting is carried out according to a single journal-order form, taking into account industry affiliation, using accounting registers adapted to the specifics of the enterprise.
In the field of pricing, the enterprise carries out, in accordance with the basic principles of state administration and price regulation, sells products at prices prevailing on the market and under the conditions provided for by law at state prices.
The enterprise maintains accounting and statistical reporting in accordance with the established norms.
Initial data are required for calculations. They are presented in the table below.
Table 3.1.
Initial data
|
Revenue per quarter: From sales of products, million rubles From renting out garages, thousand rubles Receipt of a fine, thousand rubles |
|
|
|
One-time income: Dividends on shares of other enterprises, thousand rubles (at 11 months) From the sale of equipment, thousand rubles (in 6 months) |
|
|
|
Cost per quarter: Material costs, thousand rubles Wage fund, thousand rubles For representative purposes, thousand rubles For retraining of personnel, thousand rubles To pay fines, thousand rubles |
|
|
|
One-time expenses: For purchase truck, thousand roubles. (at 9 months) Material damage from fire, thousand rubles (in December) |
||
|
The property of the enterprise at the beginning of the year: Buildings and structures, million rubles Equipment, million rubles Trucks, thousand rubles |
2 pcs (110t.r./per item) |
|
|
Intangible assets, thousand rubles |
||
Inventory - 10% to material costs without VAT.
Moreover, the company makes 40% of hospitality expenses in cash, the rest - by bank transfer. Income growth - 10% per quarter.
Table 3.2.
|
Revenues from sales |
2400000 rub. |
|
Operating income |
|
|
Non-operating income |
|
|
Total income |
gross 2494260 rub. net 2076000 rub. |
|
Material costs |
gross 610000 rub. net 508313 rub. |
|
Labor costs |
|
|
Unified social tax |
|
|
Depreciation of fixed assets |
|
|
Other expenses (total) |
gross 154935 net 137167 |
|
extraordinary expenses |
|
|
Total turnover by expenses |
|
|
Property tax |
|
|
Equipment |
|
|
Cars |
|
|
Intangible costs |
|
|
Material costs |
|
|
Financial results |
Having made similar expenses for all quarters, we get
the results presented in table. 3.3.
Table 3.3.
Table of income and expenses.
Indicators
1 quarter
2 quarter
3 quarter
4 quarter
For the whole year
1. Gross income
2. Net income
3. Gross expenses
4. Net expenses
5. Financial result
6. Gross profit
7. Adjustment of gross profit:
Represent. expenses
Dividends
Residual value of other property
8. Taxation profit
9. Net profit
10. Consumption of c.pr.
11. Balance of net profit (cumulative total)
Thus, thanks to these calculations, it is possible to track the costs of the enterprise.
CONCLUSION
Thus, the largest share in all expenses of the enterprise is the cost of production and sales of products. . The total cost of production shows the cost of production. Enterprises also incur expenses for the sale of products, i.e. non-manufacturing expenses. Accordingly, the costs of the enterprise in the production process are production costs, and marketing, supply, trade and intermediary costs are distribution costs. The second category is the cost of wages for the main production personnel, as well as the cost of wages for employees who are not employed by the enterprise and are employed in the main activities. The third element is deductions for social needs or extra-budgetary social funds.
At the enterprise allocate general economic, general production and commercial expenses. They are associated with the maintenance and management of production, with the management of the enterprise as a whole, with the costs of tare and packaging, transportation costs, advertising costs, and other sales costs, respectively.
Another main major element of expenses is the depreciation of fixed production assets, equal to the amount of depreciation. All objects of fixed assets are subject to physical and moral deterioration, therefore, from time to time there is a need to replace fixed assets.
The company's expenses include taxes: VAT; excises; income tax; customs duties; tax on property of enterprises and organizations; taxes received by road funds: tax on the sale of fuels and lubricants, tax on road users, tax on vehicle owners, tax on the purchase of vehicles; land tax; tax on transactions with securities; unified social tax.
After paying all taxes and investing part of the proceeds back into production, the remaining funds can be directed to the funds of the enterprise. By distributing net profit to consumption funds and accumulation funds, the directions for its further targeted use are determined. The accumulation fund accumulates funds that are directed to improve the production process, the consumption fund - to stimulate and encourage employees.
The object of the calculations was the enterprise LLC "Rus". Based on the data of their financial activities, the system of their expenses and incomes throughout the year is well traced, as is the distribution of their profit from the sale of products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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products (works, services), their classification
The costs of the enterprise, carried out in the course of economic activity, based on the economic content and purpose, can be combined into several independent groups:
Costs for the reproduction of production assets;
Expenses for social and cultural events;
Operating expenses;
The cost of production and sale of products "(works, services).
Costs for the reproduction of production assets ensure the continuity of production and create conditions for the sale of products. The costs of the formation and reproduction of fixed assets (creation, reconstruction, expansion and restoration of fixed assets for industrial purposes) are carried out at the expense of the enterprise's own funds, bank loans, and budget allocations. Working capital advanced for the formation of stocks of inventory items, backlogs of work in progress, finished products in stock and settlements are restored after receipt of proceeds to the settlement account of the enterprise. The increase in working capital is carried out at the expense of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise, and a bank loan.
Spending on social and cultural events include expenses for the advanced training of employees, training of personnel, improvement of the socio-cultural and living conditions of employees. This also includes the costs for the creation and reconstruction of fixed assets for non-production purposes, the maintenance of clubs, preschool children's institutions, recreation camps for children, and the functioning of medical institutions. These expenses. important for the social development of teams, are not included in the cost of production are carried out at the expense of profits, budgetary and earmarked revenues, funds of trade union organizations. income from clubs, income from parents in the form of fees for the maintenance of children in preschool institutions, etc.
Operating expenses These are special purpose costs. in particular - for scientific research work (R&D). invention, rationalization, revaluation of fixed assets, certification of equipment, forest management and geological exploration, etc.
The peculiarity of this group of costs is that they are long-term, changeable, not stable in value, pay off over a long period of time, and therefore are not included in the cost of production. Their purpose is to improve the quality and efficiency of production. The sources of financing for such expenses are the profit of the enterprise, budgetary appropriations, funds received from customers for research. performed under contracts, funds included in the cost of research.
Costs of production and sale of products (works, services) occupy the largest share in all expenses of the enterprise. They consist of the costs associated with the use in the production process of products (works, services), fixed assets, raw materials, materials, components, fuel and energy, labor and other costs. The amount of profit of the enterprise depends on the formation of this group of expenses. The costs of production and sale of products (works, services) are reimbursed after the completion of the circulation of funds at the expense of proceeds from the sale (works, services).
Production costs are diverse and classified according to certain criteria, the main of which are: the method of attribution to the cost price, the relationship with the volume of production, the degree of uniformity of costs.
Depending on the methods of attribution to the cost of production, costs are divided into direct and indirect. Under direct costs refers to the costs associated with the production certain types products that can be directly and directly included in the cost price. These are the costs of raw materials, basic materials, purchased products and semi-finished products. the basic wages of production workers, etc.
To indirect include the costs associated with the production of different products, and therefore they cannot be directly attributed to the cost of a particular type of product. These are the costs of maintaining and operating equipment, maintaining and repairing buildings, wages of auxiliary workers, engineering and technical workers, etc. Such costs are included in the cost of production using special methods determined by industry guidelines on planning accounting and calculating the cost of production ( works, services).
Depending on the relationship of costs with the volume of production, conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs are distinguished. To conditionally constant include expenses, the total value of which does not change significantly with a decrease or increase in the volume of output, as a result of which their relative value per unit of output changes. These are the costs of heating and lighting the premises, wages management personnel, depreciation deductions, cash expenses for administrative and economic needs, etc. Operating expenses depend on the volume of production. They rise or fall in line with changes in output. These include the cost of raw materials and basic materials, process fuel and energy, the basic wages of production workers, etc.
According to the degree of homogeneity, costs are divided into elemental and complex . Cost elements have a single economic content for a given link, regardless of their purpose. The purpose of grouping costs by elements is to identify the costs of producing products (works, services) by their types. For example, such elements as material costs, wages, depreciation of fixed production assets and other costs are highlighted. The ratio between the individual cost elements is the cost structure for the production of products (works, services).
Complex costs include several cost elements, and therefore, are heterogeneous in composition. They are united for a certain economic purpose. Such costs, for example, are general factory expenses, losses from marriage, expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, etc.
All costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) are their full cost. Costs are included in the prime cost in accordance with the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) included in the cost of products (works, services), and on the procedure for the formation of financial results taken into account when taxing profits, approved by a decree of the Government of the Republic of Belarus.
The need to regulate the costs incurred by enterprises in the course of their economic activities, a special normative act due to the fact that based on the cost is determined by the price and profit, and hence the income tax. All enterprises, regardless of their organizational and legal form and form of ownership, should be in the same position when determining their financial results.
The financial manager must be well aware of the composition of the costs included in a particular cost element, monitor changes in legislation in order to competently manage the level of costs and profits, monitor the tax consequences of decisions made on accounting, the choice of ways to perform individual work.
Production and sales costs represent a set of expenses of enterprises expressed in monetary form for the production and sale of products (works, services). They ensure the continuity of production and create conditions for the sale of products.
In terms of economic content, they express the costs of society, since production is carried out in the interests of society, and products are produced as a directly social product. The costs are different in composition and structure, depending on the sectoral affiliation of enterprises. They are also classified according to the method of attribution to the cost, connection with the volume of production, degree of homogeneity.
depending from the method of attribution to the cost of production they are divided into:
- straight, associated with the production of certain types of products that can be directly and directly included in the cost (raw materials, basic materials, wages of production workers, etc.);
- indirect, associated with the production of various products that cannot be attributed to the cost of a certain type of product (expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, repair of buildings, wages of engineering and technical workers, etc.).
They are included in the cost using special methods defined by industry guidelines on planning, accounting and costing.
depending from the relationship of costs with the volume of production allocate:
- semi-fixed costs- these are expenses, the value of which does not change significantly with an increase or decrease in the volume of output, as a result of which their relative value per unit of output changes (costs for heating, lighting, salaries of management personnel, depreciation, expenses for administrative and economic needs, etc. );
- conditionally variable costs the value of which depends on the volume of production, they grow or decrease in accordance with the change in the volume of output (costs of raw materials, basic materials, fuel, basic wages production staff and etc.).
According to the degree of uniformity of costs subdivided into:
- elementary;
Complex.
The elements have a single economic content, regardless of their purpose. The purpose of grouping by elements is to identify the costs of manufacturing products by their types (material costs, depreciation, etc.). The ratio between the individual cost elements is the cost structure for the production of products.
Complex costs include several elements, and therefore, are heterogeneous in composition. They are united for a certain economic purpose. Such costs are general factory expenses, losses from marriage, expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment, etc.
All costs for the production and sale of products are full cost. The composition of the costs included in the cost of products (works, services) is currently determined by a government decree.
Cost of products (works, services) is a valuation of natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, fixed assets used in the production process (works, services), labor resources, as well as other costs for its production and sale.
According to the economic content, the costs included in the cost of products (works, services) are grouped into the following elements: material costs; labor costs; deductions for social needs; depreciation of fixed assets; other costs.
1.Material costs include : the cost of purchased raw materials and materials, fuel; basic auxiliary materials; components and semi-finished products; container; repair parts; MBP and other costs. The cost of material resources is the sum of their acquisition prices.
2.3 Labor costs include: payment of wages; payment of premiums; remuneration based on the results of work for the year; compensatory and incentive payments; the cost of free meals; lump-sum remuneration for years of service; payment study holidays; remuneration of non-staff employees and other payments included in the wage fund.
Labor costs do not include: labor costs in the form of bonuses paid out of special funds; target receipts; material aid; interest-free loans to improve housing conditions; payment of additional holidays for women raising children; pension supplements; share dividends; subscriptions and purchases of goods for the personal needs of employees; payment for travel to the place of work; payment for vouchers, excursions, travel; other costs incurred at the expense of the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise.
3.0 social contributions include contributions to the mandatory social insurance fund, the Pension Fund, the State Employment Fund (currently abolished), the Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund.
4. Depreciation of fixed assets includes depreciation charges for the full restoration of fixed production assets, the amount of which is determined on the basis of their book value and current depreciation rates. If the enterprise operates on a lease basis, then this section provides depreciation charges for full restoration of its own and leased fixed assets.
Other costs include: certain types of taxes; contributions to insurance funds (reserves); rewards for inventions and rationalization proposals; travel expenses; payment for communication services; rental fee; depreciation on intangible assets, deductions to the repair fund, etc.
7. Planning costs for production and sales of products
The volume of costs for the products sold do not coincide with the volume of costs for the production of products:
Cost of products sold = Production costs + Distribution costs
Selling costs are attributed only to that part of the product that is sold, and not in warehouses.
The main task of cost planning is to ensure the most efficient use of resources, as well as to achieve financial results.
Products are considered finished if they have passed all stages of production and have the appropriate mark (QC) or certificate. Products may not leave the workshop, but having the appropriate quality mark, they can be considered finished.
When calculating the stock rate, the following time periods must be taken into account:
- products must be prepared for sale; for this you need:
a) time for packaging;
b) marking;
c) products must be prepared in the directions of shipment (routing).
- a simplified method of rationing - to calculate the terms, you can use shipping contracts, you can calculate the total number of shipments and, thus, find the interval with which products will be shipped (standard in days).
The calculation of the norm is carried out in the context of the established assortment. To calculate the standard, all the norms calculated for individual types of products are summarized.
When organizing accounting, production costs, enterprises use the provision on the composition of costs included in the cost of products (works or services), approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. The cost of production includes the costs associated with the use of natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, labor resources and other costs for its production and sale in the production process.
The cost of production does not include costs and losses attributable to the Profit and Loss account: costs for canceled orders, for the maintenance of mothballed production facilities, legal costs, fines and losses from writing off bad debts.
8 . The concept of revenue from product sales
Proceeds from the sale of products - funds received by the enterprise for products, works and services shipped to counterparties. Timely and complete receipt of revenue is the most important condition for the successful financial and economic activity of any enterprise, since it is the main and regular source of funds. On the other hand, the process of circulation of funds at the enterprise ends with the sale of products and the receipt of revenue, which in itself means the reimbursement of the costs spent on production. financial resources and serves as a prerequisite for the resumption of the production process by advancing funds to the next circuit.
The proceeds received on the settlement account of the enterprise are immediately used to pay the bills of suppliers of raw materials, materials, components, semi-finished products, spare parts, fuel, and energy. From the proceeds, taxes are deducted to the budget, wages are paid, depreciation of fixed assets is reimbursed, expenses provided for by the financial plan and not included in the cost are financed. At the same time, revenue in the strict sense is not income, since it is necessary to reimburse costs from it.
9. Planning revenue from product sales. Revenue Growth Factors
Revenue planning is necessary to determine the profit plan from sales, calculate the amounts of planned payments to the budget (profit tax, VAT, excise, and other payments). The reality of the main source of cash receipts and planned profit largely depends on the validity of its calculation.
Direct Profit Planning Method
The method of direct calculation of the planned profit from the sale of marketable products is also called the method of assortment calculation. To do this, you need to know the planned range of products, planned cost unit of product and selling price. Most often, this method is used when calculating profits in associations (enterprises) and industries with a small assortment of products and subject to planning the cost of production for each type (timber, coal, etc.).
Analytical method of profit planning
Stage 1. Determining the percentage of basic profitability for the reporting year. It is necessary to determine the expected profit for reporting period.
Stage 2. Determination of profit from the sale of comparable marketable products for the coming period, based on the percentage of basic profitability.
However, this profit takes into account only the change in one factor - the volume of sales.
Stage 3. Calculation of the influence of individual factors on the profit from the sale of comparable marketable products in the coming period.
Main factors:
- price changes in the coming period;
- changes in tax rates;
- shifts in the structure of products;
- change in the cost of goods sold.
The methodology for determining the impact on profit of this factor is generally similar to the methodology for determining the impact on profit of changes in prices of the current year, however, the difference is that an adjustment to profit is made for the period of new prices in the coming year.
In order to determine the effect of shifts in the structure of production, it is necessary to determine the average profitability ratios of products for the expiring year and for the coming year.
Stage 4. Determination of profit for an incomparable part of marketable products.
This profit can be determined in two ways and is calculated only on the products that will be produced from the coming year:
- direct count method - in cases where the range of products is limited;
- simplified method.
10. Use of proceeds from product sales
The proceeds are primarily used to pay the bills of suppliers of raw materials, materials, purchased semi-finished products, components, etc. The balance of proceeds after reimbursement of the cost of expended material resources and reimbursement of depreciation of non-current assets forms gross income, from which funds spent on wages are primarily reimbursed. The funds remaining after this constitute the net income of the enterprise, directed to the payment of taxes attributable to the financial result of the activity and the formation of profit.
11. Economic essence and profit functions
In terms of its economic content, profit expresses in monetary terms a part of the value of the surplus product. It performs a number of functions.
1. Evaluation function- lies in the fact that it most fully reflects the level of production and evaluates the efficiency of the economic activity of the entire enterprise.
2. Stimulating function- lies in the fact that the stimulating effect on the growth of the efficiency of the organization.
- fiscal function- concludes that profit is a source of deductions to the state budget and off-budget funds.
The main role of profit is to show the final financial results, which characterizes the efficiency of production, as well as the quality and demand for products. It reflects the level of income of the enterprise. Every entrepreneur makes sure that the level of profit of his company does not decrease. However, the level of profit and its change is influenced by a lot of factors that are not always directly dependent on the company itself.
12. Profit planning. her growth factors.
An important place in financial planning is the stage of profit planning. This part of planning uses all the parameters of the business plan and is decisive in determining the financial result from all activities of the organization (enterprise). Approaches to profit planning depend on the parameters of the production, economic and financial activities of the organization (enterprise). It is necessary to study the most significant relationships in the economy of the enterprise and understand their impact on profit margins. This will help to better understand the factors influencing its growth.
Profit planning is carried out separately for all types of activities of the organization (enterprise). Separate planning is due to differences in the methodology for calculating and taxing profits from various types of activities. On development stage financial plans all factors influencing the amount of profit are taken into account, and financial results from the adoption of various management decisions are modeled.
Profit planning uses the following methods:
Direct account;
Analytical;
Based on the effect of production (operational) leverage;
Based on budgeting.
1. Method of direct counting. AT It is based on assortment-wise calculation of profit from the production and sale of products. A simpler version of this method is an aggregated calculation by plan items.
2. Analytical method. This method is used for minor changes in the range of products. It is used in the absence of inflationary growth in prices and costs. When using the analytical method, the calculation is carried out separately for comparable and incomparable commercial products. Comparable products is produced in the base year that precedes the planned one, so its actual full cost and output are known.
3. Method based on the effect of the production (non-split) leverage (CVP-analye). This profit planning method is based on the principle of dividing costs into fixed and variable costs. With the help of these data marginal profit is calculated.
Profit planning methods should be studied in detail. For commercial organizations (enterprises) it is very important to determine the cost recovery threshold, after which they will begin to make a profit. Here you need to use the method of operational (production) leverage. Using this method, one can establish a break-even point, i.e. the amount of revenue at which the organization (enterprise) will fully cover its costs without receiving any profit or loss.
4. Method based on budgeting. On the basis of budgeting, computer-oriented models of financial profit planning are being developed. The profit planning algorithm is based on the phased preparation of initial data for financial planning. Here the interrelation of organizational, production and financial planning is carried out.
The main factors for the growth of profits of firms, organizations in the modern market economy:
- Product quality improvement factor and consumer orientation. In terms of production efficiency, it is more important to focus on improving the quality of products than to fight only for a simple reduction in production costs.
The increase in sales turnover is associated with a constant increase in customer-consumers (strengthening positions in existing markets, conquering new markets). - The factor of the company's position in the market, the preservation and development of competitive advantages. For example, Toyota is constantly striving to maintain its leadership among other companies in such an indicator of cars as reliability.
- R&D rate factor. The implementation of R&D results allows to reduce costs, improve product quality, promote the emergence of new science-intensive products and, ultimately, strengthen competitive positions.
- Factor of the level of organization of production and management.
- The factor of creating conditions for the most complete implementation and continuous development of the "human factor", "human capital", increasing the interest of employees in the affairs of the company.
13. Profitability of the enterprise
The profitability of an enterprise is an indicator of the efficiency with which fixed assets are used, calculated as the ratio of profit to the average cost of fixed and current assets.
Profit and profitability of the enterprise are directly interconnected.
Profit is an economic category that expresses production and economic relations arising from the formation and subsequent use of the product being produced. In the real sector, profit takes a material form in the form of cash, resources, funds and benefits.
If the company makes any profit, then it is profitable. The profitability indicators used in the calculations reflect the relative profitability. Analysis financial stability enterprise is based on the analysis of these indicators. To assess the effectiveness and economic feasibility of the functioning of the enterprise, absolute and relative indicators are taken.
Absolute indicators make it possible to analyze the dynamics of profit indicators for certain years. At the same time, to obtain more reliable results, the indicators are calculated taking into account inflation.
Relative indicators are options for the ratio of profit and capital invested in production (profit and production costs). Therefore, they are not so affected by inflation.
The absolute amount of profit does not always give a correct idea of the level of profitability of a particular enterprise, since it is influenced by both the quality of work and the scale of activity. In this regard, for a more accurate description of the work of the enterprise, not only the absolute amount of profit is used, but also relative indicator called the rate of return.
These indicators should be considered in comparison with other time periods, since this allows us to judge the dynamics of the enterprise's development.
The profitability of the enterprise characterizes the level of profitability or unprofitability of production. The profitability indicators themselves are relative characteristics of the results of financial growth and the effectiveness of the organization. They reflect the relative profitability of a firm or enterprise, which is measured as a percentage of the cost of capital from different positions.
The most important characteristics of the actual environment in which the profit and income of the enterprise are formed are profitability indicators. They are used in comparative analysis and assessment of the financial condition of the enterprise.
The main indicators of profitability are: profitability of the company's products, return on capital and overall profitability.
Product profitability is a reflection of the ratio of profit per unit of products sold. This indicator increases with an increase in product prices with unchanged production costs or a decrease in production costs while maintaining constant cents for products sold.
Return on capital shows the effectiveness of the use of all property at the disposal of the enterprise.
The overall profitability (profitability of the enterprise) expresses the ratio of balance sheet profit to the average value of fixed production assets, as well as normalized working capital. This ratio of funds to costs shows the profitability of the enterprise. In other words, the level of overall profitability, reflecting the increase in invested capital, equals the profit generated before interest, multiplied by 100% and divided by assets.
Overall profitability is a key metric used for profitability analysis. To more accurately determine the development of the organization, two more indicators are calculated: the profitability of production turnover and the number of asset turnovers.
The profitability of turnover is equal to the dependence of gross revenue on costs. The number of turnovers of capital is equal to the ratio of gross proceeds to the amount of capital.
14. Economic content of working capital
Working capital can be identified with working capital.
In the balance sheet, working capital is the assets of the balance sheet, and working capital is the liabilities of the balance sheet (how much capital is invested in economic activity).
Working capital is the value financial sources necessary for the formation of current assets of the enterprise.
Working capital serves the process of the current household. activities and simultaneously participate in the production process and in the process of selling products.
The main purpose is to ensure the continuity and rhythm of the production process.
Working capital is fully involved in the production process, changing its form and value
By functional purpose, working capital is divided into:
1. Working and production assets:
Objects of labor
· Means of labor
· Productive reserves
· Unfinished production
· Future expenses
2. The circulation funds consist of:
Finished products
· Money
Working capital, as an element of financing, is not spent, not consumed, but is advanced in different kinds running costs of the enterprise. The purpose of advance payment is the creation of the necessary inventories entering production -> production and sales of products -> cash -> accession to the capital of the enterprise, i.e. return of the advanced capital.
Working capital is a set of funds advanced for the creation and use of working capital and circulation funds.
In the process of circulation, circulating capital passes through three stages and exists following formula working capital movements:
D-T…T-P-T’…T’-D’
Where D - money, T - goods, P - production, T'-finished products, D' - sales.
The difference between D and D' shows the efficiency of the enterprise, as a result, profit.
15. Fundamentals of the organization of working capital, their composition and structure
The organization of working capital at the enterprise includes determining the need for working capital, their composition, structure, sources of formation, as well as the regulation and management of the use of working capital.
One of the basic principles of the organization of working capital is rationing The implementation of this principle makes it possible to economically justify the required amount of working capital and thereby ensure the conditions for the successful implementation of their functions. The erroneous practice of refusing to ration working capital is one of the reasons for the crisis in the economy, the decline in production and violations of payment and settlement discipline.
Thus, the process of developing economically justified amounts of working capital necessary for organizing the normal operation of an enterprise is called working capital rationing.
Stocks of inventory, values of the enterprise are calculated in days of stock in physical and monetary terms.
The working capital ratio is the following:
N ob.s \u003d N pr.z + N NP + N GP + N rbp,
where N PR.Z - the standard of production reserves;
N NP - the standard of work in progress;
N GP - standard stocks of finished products;
N rbp - the standard for deferred expenses.
The most important principle of the correct organization of working capital is use them strictly for their intended purpose. Violation of this principle by diverting advanced working capital from the production turnover to cover losses, all kinds of losses due to mismanagement, to pay inflated bank interest on loans, to make tax payments to the budget, etc., had a very negative impact on production activities many enterprises, led, as already noted, to a crisis of payment and settlement discipline, an increase in huge debts to suppliers for supplied raw materials and finished products, workers and employees - in wages, and the budget - in tax payments.
An important principle of the organization of working capital is ensuring their safety, rational use and acceleration of turnover.
In practice, a significant part of our enterprises do not comply with this principle, which has an extremely negative impact on their economic activities.
16. Indicators of the effectiveness of the use of working capital
Each company has current assets as part of its assets. To finance them, the company uses certain sources, which in total are called working capital. The enterprise should strive to improve the efficiency of the use of working capital. This is necessary in order to maximize the efficiency of the economic activity of the enterprise as a whole. The use of working capital is characterized by three coefficients: turnover, turnover in days and loading.
Working capital turnover ratio shows how many turnovers make working capital for the analyzed period (quarter, half year, year). It is determined by the formula Kob = = VP / Osr, where Vfi- sales volume for the reporting period; Osr - the average balance of working capital for the reporting period.
Duration of one turn in days shows the period for which the enterprise returns its working capital in the form of proceeds from the sale of products: D \u003d T / Kob or D \u003d T x Osr / VP, where T- the number of days in the reporting period.
Load factor in circulation characterizes the amount of working capital advanced for 1 rub. proceeds from the sale of products. Thus, this indicator represents the working capital intensity, or the cost of working capital to obtain 1 ruble. of sold products: Kz = Osp / VP x 100, where Kz is the utilization factor of funds in circulation (i.e., the reciprocal of the turnover ratio), kop.; 100 is the coefficient for converting rubles into kopecks.
The smaller Kz, the more efficiently working capital is used at the enterprise, the better its financial position.
Release of working capital as a result of the acceleration of their turnover, it is determined by the formula DO \u003d Oo - Opl, where DO is the amount of released working capital, Oo is the need for working capital in the planning period (provided there is no acceleration of their turnover), rub.; Opl - the need for working capital in the planning period, taking into account the acceleration of their turnover, rub.
The release of working capital can be absolute and relative.
Absolute Release takes place if the actual balances of working capital are less than the standard or the balances of the previous period while maintaining or converting the volume of sales for the period under review.
Relative release working capital takes place in those cases when the acceleration of their turnover occurs simultaneously with the growth in output, and the growth rate of production outpaces the growth rate of working capital balances.
As indicators of the efficiency of the use of working capital, indicators of the efficiency of the use of material resources can be considered. This is due to the fact that the production stocks of the enterprise, as a rule, constitute a significant share of working capital.
17. Financial services of the enterprise
The financial service of an enterprise is understood as an independent structural unit that performs certain functions in the enterprise management system. Typically, this unit is the finance department. Its structure and number depend on the organizational and legal form of the enterprise, the nature of economic activity, the volume of production and the total number of employees at the enterprise.
The nature of economic activity and the volume of production determine the amount of money turnover, the number of payment documents associated with settlements with other enterprises - suppliers and buyers (customers), with commercial banks, other creditors, the budget. The number of employees affects the volume of cash transactions and settlements with workers and employees.
The main directions of financial work at the enterprise are financial planning, operational and control and analytical work.
In small enterprises, financial work may be performed by the financial sector as part of the financial and sales department or accounting department. On the large enterprises the financial department consists of several groups (bureaus), which are assigned certain functions. The head of the department reports directly to the management of the enterprise (see diagram 1.1).
The given structure of the financial department as a whole corresponds to the content of the financial work that must be performed at the enterprise to finance all the costs of the enterprise and make payments. But she's in to a large extent preserves the shortcomings inherent in enterprise management in the previous pre-market business conditions.
18. Financial planning at the enterprise
Planning is one of the most important processes on which the efficiency of a company depends.
Planning is a management function. The essence of this process lies in the logical definition of the development of the enterprise, setting goals for any sector of activity and the work of each structural unit, which is necessary in modern conditions. When planning, tasks are set, material, labor and financial means are determined to achieve them and deadlines, as well as the sequence of their implementation.
In addition, factors that have an impact on the development of the enterprise's activities are analyzed and identified in order to prevent them in a timely manner at the stage of occurrence in case of their negative impact.
Thus, we can say that planning as a management function means the desire to take into account in advance all external and internal factors that provide suitable conditions for the normal functioning and development of the enterprise. It also determines the development of a set of measures that establish the sequence of achieving specific goals, taking into account the possibilities for the most efficient use of resources by each production unit and all enterprises. Therefore, planning is designed to ensure the relationship between the individual structural divisions of the enterprise, which contain the entire technological chain. Such activities are based on the discovery and forecasting of consumer demand, analysis and assessment of available resources and prospects for the development of the market. This implies the necessary linkage of planning with marketing and control in order to constantly adjust production and sales figures in connection with changes in market demand. Planning covers both the current and prospective time period and is carried out in the form of forecasting and programming.
The planning process involves the setting of certain goals, the development of measures to achieve these goals, as well as the company's policy for the long term.
For management, planning is a stage on which development largely depends.
The literacy of the management, the qualifications of the specialists involved in this process, the adequacy of the resources necessary for the implementation of the process ( computer technology etc.), informative base.
Of course, sometimes the factors influencing the planning process at an enterprise depend on the specifics of the activity, on regional affiliation, but with qualified personnel and competent management, all shortcomings can be eliminated in a short time.
19. Fixed capital of the enterprise
The fixed capital of an enterprise is a part of the productive capital, which fully and repeatedly takes part in the production of goods, transfers its value to New Product piecemeal, over a series of periods. Fixed capital includes that part of the advanced capital that is spent on the construction of buildings, structures, on the purchase of machinery, equipment, and tools.
After the sale of the goods, the fixed capital is returned in installments in cash to the entrepreneur. Fixed capital is subject to physical and moral deterioration.
Physical depreciation is the gradual loss of use value by fixed capital, which is gradually transferred to the product, returned in parts in the form of depreciation. Obsolescence occurs due to the growth of labor productivity and technological progress and leads to the renewal of fixed capital before it physically wears out.
Fixed capital is money invested in fixed assets. It changes its material form and goes through the following stages:
investment(monetary form - fixed assets) - into real assets - buildings, structures, machinery and equipment, etc., and not into financial assets - shares, bonds.
production(material - material form), consumption in the form of depreciation. The process of gradually transferring the value of the means of labor, as they wear out physically and morally, to the product produced with their help; the use of special funds - depreciation included in the costs of production and circulation, for simple and expanded reproduction of fixed assets;
reimbursement: accrued depreciation is converted into cash (cost, revenue). This money is used to purchase new equipment.
The main capital includes:
fixed assets- part of the property used as means of labor in the production of products, performance of work or provision of services, or for the management of the organization for a period exceeding 12 months or the normal operating cycle, if it exceeds 12 months. As part of fixed assets, land plots owned by the organization, objects of nature management are taken into account (this is the monetary value of fixed assets and material assets that have a long service life);
pending long-term investments- the cost of creating, increasing the size, as well as the acquisition of non-current non-current assets of long-term use (over one year), not intended for sale, with the exception of long-term financial investments in government securities, securities and authorized capital of other enterprises;
long-term financial investment- investments of the organization in government securities, bonds and other securities of other organizations, in the authorized (share) capital of other organizations, as well as loans granted to other organizations;
Intangible assets. Intellectual property objects (exclusive right to the results of intellectual activity) can be attributed to:
The composition of intangible assets also includes the business reputation of the organization and organizational expenses (expenses associated with the formation of a legal entity, recognized in accordance with the constituent documents as part of the contribution of participants (founders) to the authorized (share) capital of the organization).
Fixed assets include: buildings - a type of fixed assets, including architectural and construction objects, the purpose of which is to create conditions for work, housing, social and cultural services for the population and storage of material values; structures - objects of engineering infrastructure; working and power machines and equipment - small parts of capital that are used in the production of goods; measuring and regulating instruments and devices, computer technology.
20. Depreciation and methods of its calculation
Depreciation(from the middle - century. lat. amortisatio- redemption) -1) gradual depreciation of funds (equipment, buildings, structures) and the transfer of their value in parts to manufactured products; 2) decrease in the value of taxable property (by the amount of capitalized tax). Depreciation deductions- accruals with subsequent deductions, reflecting the process of gradually transferring the value of labor instruments as they wear out and obsolescence to the cost of products, works and services produced with their help in order to accumulate funds for subsequent full recovery.
The production and sale of products are integral parts of the overall process of reproduction. Since the implementation acts as a process of movement of the product from the sphere of production to the sphere of consumption and is the final stage in the activity of the enterprise, it most fully characterizes the economic side of the entire social reproduction and reproduction of the funds of individual enterprises. It's complicated economic process, which cannot be reduced to a simple sale of products.
Production and sales are interrelated processes. The study of the implementation process as a special phase of reproduction and bringing it into line with the level of development of production is one of the main conditions for increasing the efficiency of production.
Production in modern economic science is commonly understood as any activity of members of society in the use of natural resources. Natural resources also include human resources. The purpose of production activity is to create material and non-material benefits necessary for an individual member of society and society as a whole. Often in everyday life, production activity is understood only as the creation of real material goods. For the most part, the theory of production is understood as the theory of the processes of transformation, or transformation (transformation, transformation, modification), of resources into diverse types of products and services.
Production is a human-controlled process of creating products (products, services). Production involves the use of factors of production (labor, materials, energy, various services) requires compliance with technical conditions and rules, as well as taking into account social and ethical standards.
The reserves for the growth of production consist of three groups:
- 1. By improving the use of labor resources:
- a) creation of additional jobs;
- b) reducing the loss of working time;
- c) increasing the level of labor productivity.
- 2. By improving the use of fixed assets:
- a) purchase of additional machinery and equipment;
- b) more complete use of their working time fund;
- c) increasing the productivity of equipment;
- 3. By improving the use of raw materials and materials:
- a) additional purchase of raw materials and materials;
- b) reduction of excess waste of raw materials and materials;
- c) reducing the norms of the cost of raw materials and materials per unit of output.
Since the production process has costs (costs) and results, it is natural to raise the question of the production function. It is not uncommon for a production function to fall into purely technical categories. This appears to be inaccurate. Since the production function describes the relationship between costs and results, it inevitably comes into contact with the efficiency of the function itself and its arguments. Obviously, it is more correct to speak of the production function as an intermediate category. More efficient is the technological method of production that provides more products for given resources or, conversely, requires fewer resources to obtain a given volume of product. It is easy to see that the efficiency of various technological methods of production is largely determined by the level of prices for resources and products. Apparently, this is another argument in favor of considering the production function as a category close to the economic one. This is essential for society as a whole and for each economic agent.
In practice, in the competitive struggle for profit maximization, one of the most important means is to increase the volume of output. This can be achieved in two main ways:
- · Intensify (increase tension, productivity) the use of available production capacities;
- · Make investments, that is, expand capacities and attract new employees.
The condition for implementation is the conformity of the use value to the requirements of the product. If there is no such correspondence, then the contradictions between value and use value manifest themselves in the form of unrealized goods. The labor spent on their production is not recognized by society as necessary. And this is a contradiction between production and consumer. In this sense, implementation acts as a prerequisite for production.
Sometimes the sales process is reduced to a simple sale of products by the enterprise. From an economic point of view, this process is more complex than it seems at first glance.
Realization, for an enterprise, is, first of all, the alienation of the products of one's labor by selling it in order to meet the needs of society and reproduce the funds of the enterprise. The funds spent on the production of goods are reimbursed, funds are allocated for the expansion of production, a wage fund is created, and other needs of the enterprise are satisfied. The act of implementation acts as a reimbursement of costs in the form of value. Realization as a moment of reproduction at the enterprise level is the final stage in the circulation of the production assets of a self-supporting enterprise. At this stage, the main performance indicators of the enterprise are clarified, production costs and cash receipts for products are measured, and profit is determined. These indicators just determine the efficiency of production.
The current procedure for accounting for profits on paid invoices does not fully comply with the accounting rules, according to which sales of products (works, services) are recorded at the time of their shipment (fulfillment) and presentation of settlement documents to buyers (customers).
For the purposes of accounting, reporting and taxation of profits, small business entities are allowed to carry out sales accounting according to their choice: on the basis of the accrual method or on the basis of the cash method. Registration on the accounts of accounting operations for the sale in small businesses on the basis of the accrual method for the purposes of taxation of profits is similar to the considered procedure. The cash method of accounting is well known in accounting practice.
It should be noted that the procedure for calculating VAT on sold products (works, services) for tax purposes remained the same. This means that for the purposes of VAT taxation, any enterprise can apply one of two methods: the accrual method or the cash method.
The volume of sales of products is determined either by the shipment of products to customers, or by payment (revenue). It can be expressed in comparable, planned and current prices. In a market economy, this indicator is of paramount importance. The sale of products is the link between production and the consumer. The volume of production depends on how the products are sold, what is the demand for them in the market.
Natural indicators of production volumes and product sales (pieces, meters, tons, etc.) are also important for assessing the implementation of the production program. They are used in the analysis of production volumes and sales of products for certain types and groups of homogeneous products.
Conditionally natural indicators, as well as cost indicators, are used to generalize the characteristics of production volumes, for example, SeNat LLP uses such an indicator as a thousand pieces.
Accounting for revenue from the sale and shipment of goods.
In accordance with the documents, the profit from the sale is mainly recorded on an accrual basis (currently, ownership to the buyer mainly passes at the time of transfer or shipment of goods), without waiting for the receipt of money from the buyer. The shipment of goods under the terms of subsequent payment in accounting and reporting is included in the volume of sales in the manner that was previously established for accounting for sales on credit.
Handing over of a thing to the acquirer, its delivery to the carrier or communication organization for sending or sending to the acquirer is recognized as a transfer. The accountant needs to pay attention to the fact that the ownership of the thing passes to the acquirer (including the buyer) only at the time of transfer to the latter or at the time of delivery to the carrier or communication organization for sending or forwarding to the acquirer. The transfer of goods to an intermediary for subsequent sale to the buyer, the delivery of goods to the carrier for delivery of goods to the place of sale or to the intermediate warehouse of the seller does not lead to a change in ownership, therefore, sales proceeds are not reflected in the composition, such goods should be accounted for on separate sub-accounts.
Sending goods to another party (under a sale and purchase agreement) that do not correspond in quality and assortment to the terms of the concluded agreement does not lead to a change in ownership. If the buyer agrees to buy the goods delivered to him that are not provided for by the contract, that is, he agrees to change the terms of the contract, then at the time of changing these conditions or at the time provided for in the contract, such goods are considered sold.
If the contracts of sale, supply, contracting, energy supply do not provide for the moment of transfer of ownership to the buyer, then the occurrence of obligations, proceeds from the sale of goods and disposal of goods at the time of delivery to the buyer (consumer, subscriber, procurer, customer) or transfer to the carrier (authorities connections) in accounting are reflected in the following accounting entries:
Table 1
Business operations on proceeds from the sale and disposal of goods
|
business transaction |
||
|
Seller (supplier, etc.): |
||
|
Finished products are shipped, its cost is determined |
||
|
Energy released, its cost is determined |
||
|
Goods shipped, their cost is determined |
||
|
The obligations of buyers are reflected, the proceeds from the sale are determined |
||
|
Value added tax accrued in accordance with tax legislation |
||
|
Selling and distribution costs are written off |
||
|
The resulting financial result is reflected |
||
|
Buyer: |
||
|
Fixed assets (funds) received, supplier's account accepted |
||
|
Table 1 continued |
||
|
Allocated VAT |
||
|
Inventory received, vendor invoice accepted |
||
|
Allocated VAT |
||
|
Received goods intended for retail sale |
||
|
Received goods intended for wholesale |
||
|
Allocated VAT |
In the absence of invoices or settlement documents, the buyer reflects the received property, the ownership by which it passed to him, with the following entries:
table 2
Business operations on received property
|
business transaction |
||
|
Uninvoiced materials are credited at the contract price, and in the absence of a specific contract price - at the market price (excluding VAT) |
||
|
The received materials are used for the production of products |
||
|
Uninvoiced goods destined for wholesale are credited |
||
|
The buyer's obligation and sales proceeds are determined |
||
|
Purchase proceeds received |
||
|
VAT charged on trade markup |
||
|
Supplier invoice paid |
||
|
VAT credited |
The terms of the concluded contracts may provide for various moments of transfer of ownership to the buyer of the goods.
Since the future buyer, as a rule, does not have the right to use and dispose of the goods (including the results of works and services) until the transfer of ownership to it, the delay in the transfer of ownership to the buyer is not possible for all types of goods.
So, consumers of electricity, gas, water and the like actually become the owners of the goods at the time of the transfer of these goods. An exception can be made for those goods that are not used by consumers, that is, they are accepted for safekeeping until the day the seller's invoice is paid or until another moment of transfer of ownership.
For those contracts under which the ownership of the goods passes on the days following the day of shipment, the seller applies accounting entries:
Table 3
Business transactions under contracts
The mentioned values before the transfer of ownership by the buyer are accounted for in the balance sheet, and after the transfer they are included in the composition of materials, inventory, etc. If the ownership of the goods has passed to the buyer, but the goods have not yet arrived at his warehouse, then such property is accounted for as goods in transit.
Introduction
1.2 Cost accounting methods
2. Estimation of the costs of the enterprise for the production and sale of products on the example of LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan"
2.1 Brief organizational economic characteristic LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan"
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
The most important indicator of the economic activity of any enterprise is profit, it depends mainly on the price of products and the costs of its production and sale.
In economic theory, an approach has been established according to which any commercial enterprise seeks to make decisions that would ensure that it receives the maximum possible profit, which depends primarily on the price of the enterprise's products and the costs of its production and sale, which is reflected in the works of various authors:
I.N. Chuev., L.N. Chechevitsyna. "Enterprise economy" .
IN AND. Strazhev "Analysis of economic activity in industry".
G.V. Savitskaya "Analysis of the economic activity of agro-industrial complex enterprises".
N.P. Lyubushin "Integrated economic analysis economic activity".
I.A. Lieberman cost management.
V.E. Kerimov "Modern systems and methods of accounting and analysis of costs in commercial organizations».
The price of products on the market develops most often (except for the services of natural monopolies) as a result of the interaction of supply and demand. In the most general case, the price level for the company's products is external factor which the company is unable to influence.
The production process is the most important stage in the circulation of enterprise funds. In the course of this process, the enterprise, spending material, labor and financial resources, forms the cost of manufactured products, which ultimately, ceteris paribus, significantly affects the financial result of the enterprise - its gross profit or loss. Proper organization accounting for production costs, on the one hand, provides effective control over the effective use of material, labor and financial resources at the enterprise and, on the other hand, allows the enterprise to avoid conflict situations in relations with the tax service when resolving issues of taxation of profits.
The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that cost accounting is the most important tool for enterprise management. The need to account for production costs is growing as the business environment becomes more complex and the requirements for profitability increase. Enterprises that enjoy economic independence must have a clear idea of the payback of various types of finished products, the effectiveness of each decision made and their impact on financial results, as well as on the amount of costs. Secondly, this section of accounting is very broad and covers a lot of information that I had the opportunity to read.
This term paper is:
Displaying the classification of costs for the production and sale of products;
Study of cost accounting methods;
Displaying the cost structure for the production and sale of products by economic elements and calculation items.
1. Theoretical basis formation and accounting of costs for the production and sale of products
1.1 Essence and classification of costs
in the economic literature and normative documents such concepts as "costs", "expenses", "costs" are used. It should be noted that some authors consider these terms to be different, while others consider them synonymous.
The term "costs" is used, as a rule, in economic theory. These are the total losses of the enterprise associated with the performance of certain operations. They include both explicit (accounting) and opportunity (opportunity) costs.
Explicit (accounting) costs are the expenses of the enterprise expressed in monetary form, due to the acquisition and expenditure of different types economic resources in the process of production and circulation of products, goods, works or services.
Alternative (imputed) costs mean the lost profit of the enterprise, which it would have received if it had chosen to produce an alternative product, at an alternative price, in an alternative market, etc.
Therefore, under the costs it is advisable to understand the explicit (accounting, actual, estimated) costs of the enterprise.
The term expenses means a decrease in the funds of an enterprise or an increase in its debt obligations in the course of economic activity. Expenses are the use of raw materials, materials, services of third parties, etc. Only at the time of sale, the enterprise recognizes its income and the associated part of the costs - expenses. Thus, we can say that the concepts of "costs", "costs", "expenses" are not direct synonyms.
The concept of enterprise costs varies significantly depending on their economic purpose. A clear delineation of costs according to their role in the reproduction process is a defining moment in theory and practice; in accordance with it, costs are grouped at all levels of management, the cost of production is formed, and funding sources are determined. According to the reproduced sign, the costs of the enterprise are divided into three types:
The cost of production and sale of products, forming its cost. These are current costs covered from the proceeds from the sale of products through the circulation of working capital;
The cost of expanding and updating production. As a rule, these are large one-time capital investments for new or modernized products. They expand the applied factors
production, increase the authorized capital. The costs consist of capital investments in fixed assets, an increase in the working capital ratio, and the costs of creating an additional workforce for new production. These costs have special sources of financing: sinking fund, profit, issue of securities, credit, etc.;
Costs for socio-cultural, housing and other similar needs of the enterprise. They are not directly related to production and are financed from special funds, formed mainly from distributed profits.
The costs of production and sale of products (works, services) are the costs of the enterprise, expressed in cash and associated with the use of raw materials, components, fuel, energy, labor, fixed assets, intangible assets and other non-capital costs in the production process . They are included in the cost of manufactured products, the level of which determines the amount of profit, profitability of products and capital, as well as other final indicators of the financial and economic activity of the enterprise.
There are the following areas and signs of classification of costs depending on the processes of economic activity of the enterprise:
Making managerial decisions - explicit and alternative costs, relevant and irrelevant, effective and inefficient;
Forecasting - costs of the short-term and long-term periods;
Planning - planned and unplanned costs;
Rationing - costs within the established standards, norms and estimates and for deviations from them;
Organizations - costs by places and areas of their occurrence, functions of activity and centers of responsibility;
Accounting - costs in the context of economic elements and costing items, single-element and complex, fixed and variable, main and overhead, direct and indirect, current and one-time;
Control - costs controlled and uncontrolled;
Regulation - costs are regulated and unregulated;
Incentives - mandatory and incentive costs;
Analysis - actual, planned, standard and normative, full and partial, general and structural costs.
An important point in enterprise management is the decision-making process, during which the tactics and strategy of enterprise development are determined. In this case, first of all, the division of costs into explicit and implicit (alternative) ones is important.
Explicit costs are the estimated costs that an enterprise must incur in carrying out production and commercial activities.
The costs associated with the rejection of one product in favor of another are called opportunity (imputed) costs. They mean lost profits. When the choice of one action excludes the occurrence of another action. Opportunity costs arise when resources are limited. If resources are unlimited, the opportunity cost is zero. The opportunity cost is sometimes called incremental.
Depending on the specifics of the decisions made, it is advisable to divide the costs into relevant and irrelevant. Relevant (i.e. significant, significant) costs can be considered only those costs that depend on the management decision under consideration. In particular, past costs cannot be relevant because they can no longer be influenced. At the same time, imputed costs (lost profits) are relevant for making managerial decisions.
The results of decisions made can be significantly affected by the division of costs into effective and inefficient ones.
Effective costs are productive costs, as a result of which they receive income from the sale of those types of products for the production of which these costs were incurred.
Inefficient costs are non-productive costs that will not result in revenues, since the product will not be produced. Inefficient costs are losses in production, which include losses from marriage, downtime, shortages and damage to inventory items, etc. Isolation of inefficient costs allows you to prevent losses from penetrating into planning and rationing.
In order for the cost per unit of output to be minimal, it is necessary to make sure that the decisions made are focused on minimizing costs. Where an important role is played by the forecasting process, during which the costs of the enterprise, according to the criterion of the time lag, are considered in the short and long term. This is due to the fact that the short-term and long-term periods differ in the opportunities that arise for the organization.
These differences include:
In the short term, the organization cannot change its production capacity, but in the long term there is such an opportunity;
In the short term, there is no possibility of free access of new firms to the industry and the market, i.e. the number of functioning economic units, as a rule, does not change; in the long run, this possibility arises;
In the short term, fixed and variable costs can be distinguished. In the long run, all costs become variable due to a change in the scale base.
The management decisions made cannot be implemented if they are not directly related to the planning process, during which the estimated costs associated with the implementation of industrial and commercial activities are considered from the point of view of their coverage by the plan. For this purpose, the costs of the enterprise must be divided into planned and unplanned.
Of great importance is the classification of costs depending on their relationship to the norms, regulations, limits and standards in force at the enterprise. On this basis, all costs included in the cost of production are grouped according to the established norms in force at the beginning of the current month, and according to deviations from the current norms that arose during the production process. Such a division of costs underlies regulatory accounting and is the most important means of current operational control over the level of production costs.
According to the composition, the costs are divided into single-element and complex.
Single-element costs are those that consist of one element: materials, wages, depreciation, etc. These costs, regardless of their place of origin and purpose, are not divided into different components.
Complex costs are considered to be those consisting of several elements, for example, general production and general business expenses, which include the wages of the relevant personnel, depreciation of buildings and other single-element costs.
According to the economic content, the costs are classified according to economic elements and costing items.
An economic element is usually called a primary homogeneous type of cost for the production and sale of products, which at the enterprise level cannot be decomposed into its component parts.
For all enterprises, a single list of cost elements has been established, which includes the following costs: material, labor costs, depreciation and other costs.
The grouping of costs by economic elements is an object of financial accounting and is used in the preparation of annual financial statements. This grouping makes it possible to establish the needs for fixed and working capital, determine the wage fund, etc.
However, the classification of costs by economic elements does not allow calculating the cost of individual types of products.
To solve this problem, the classification of costs by costing items is used. It allows you to determine the purpose of costs and their role, organize control over them, establish in which areas it is necessary to search for ways to reduce costs. On the basis of this grouping, analytical accounting of production costs is built, planned and actual costing of individual types of products.
In commercial organizations, this grouping of costs is the main one, but its content is differentiated based on the specifics of each industry.
When establishing a cost accounting system, it is possible to allocate a grouping of costs in relation to changes in the volume of production. On this basis, costs are divided into fixed and variable.
Fixed costs are those costs that do not change with changes in the volume of production, for example, general business expenses.
Variables are called costs, the value of which changes with the change in the volume of production. These include the consumption of raw materials and materials, fuel and energy for technological purposes, the wages of production workers, etc.
Of particular importance for cost accounting and management is the method of including costs in the cost of production. On this basis, the costs of the enterprise are divided into direct and indirect.
Direct costs are called the costs of producing a particular type of product. Therefore, they can be attributed to the objects of calculation at the time of their commission or accrual based on the data of primary documents.
Indirect costs are associated with the release of several types of products, such as the cost of managing and maintaining production.
Indirect costs are first collected in separate accounting accounts, and then included in the cost of specific products using special distribution calculations. The choice of the distribution base is determined by the industry specifics of the enterprise.
Important in the process of cost management is the grouping of costs according to their role in the technological process. On this basis, the costs of the enterprise are divided into fixed and overhead.
The main costs are those directly related to the technological process of manufacturing products. These include: the cost of raw materials, the cost of wages for production workers, the cost of operating production machinery and equipment, etc.
Overhead costs are formed in connection with the organization, maintenance of production, sales of products and management. They consist of administrative and selling expenses. The amount of these costs depends on the management structure of the organization, the effectiveness of management and other factors.
An important role in cost management is the grouping of costs depending on the time of their occurrence and attribution to the cost of production. On this basis, the costs are divided into current and future periods.
Current costs are the costs of production and sales of products of this reporting period. They have generated income in the present and have lost the ability to generate income in the future.
Deferred expenses are expenses incurred in the current reporting period, but subject to inclusion in the cost of products that will be produced in subsequent reporting periods.
Of no small importance in cost management is the control system, which ensures the completeness and correctness of future actions aimed at reducing costs and increasing production efficiency. To provide a system of control over costs, they are grouped into controlled and uncontrolled.
Controllable costs are those costs that can be controlled by the subjects of management.
Uncontrollable costs do not depend on the activities of management entities, for example, the revaluation of fixed assets increases the amount of depreciation.
When building an effective cost control system in an enterprise, it is necessary to identify responsibility centers where costs are formed, classify costs and then organize cost management. As a result, the head of the enterprise will be able to timely identify "bottlenecks" in the formation of costs and make appropriate decisions. The process of cost management in the enterprise includes the process of regulating their level. For these purposes, costs are divided into regulated and unregulated.
The degree of cost controllability depends on the specifics of a particular enterprise; therefore, there is no universal method for classifying costs on this basis.
The experience of successful enterprises shows that a clear definition of costs and their classification are of no small importance for organizing their optimal management and, accordingly, for reducing them and maximizing profits.
1.2 Cost accounting methods
Determining the cost is a very complex process, and the calculation of the cost of products (works, services) must meet the industry specifics of the enterprise, as well as the features of the organization of its production.
There are four main methods of costing products: simple, normative, custom and conversion.
Downtime is used in enterprises that produce homogeneous products that do not have semi-finished products and work in progress. In these enterprises, all production costs for the reporting period are the cost of all manufactured products (works, services). The cost of a unit of production is calculated by dividing the amount of production costs by the number of units of production.
The standard is used in enterprises with mass and serial production. A prerequisite for its application is the preparation of a normative calculation according to the norms in force at the beginning of the month and the subsequent systematic identification in the current order of deviations from these norms (savings and overspending) at the end of the month. The current norms are those according to which the release of materials and wages are currently being made.
The custom method of accounting is used at enterprises of individual and small-scale production, where production costs are accounted for by individual orders for a product or work. Here, the actual cost is determined at the end of the completed order. The entire amount of costs will be its cost.
The limiting method is used at enterprises where the raw materials and materials in the production process go through a number of limits, stages (brick, textile), or where different types of products are obtained from the same raw materials in one technological process of production. With the conversion method, the cost of all products is first determined, and then the cost of its unit.
2. Estimation of costs for production and sale of products on the example of LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan"
2.1 Brief organizational and economic characteristics of Flour of Kazakhstan LLP
Limited Liability Partnership “Flour of Kazakhstan” was registered with the Department of Justice of Pavlodar region on December 05, 2001, certificate of state registration of a legal entity No. 9919-1945-TOO.
The main activity of Flour of Kazakhstan LLP is the purchase, storage and processing of grain. The enterprise began its activity with the lease of the mill complex from LLP Grain Company "Irtysh Mills" with the right of subsequent redemption.
At the time of acquisition, the productivity of the property complex was up to 200 tons of grain per day. The quality of the products, due to the lack of debugging of the production process and the absence of a major overhaul for a long time, was unstable, there were low rates of output of finished products. It was necessary to repair the roof of industrial buildings, high-rise silos and other technological equipment.
In order to increase productivity and improve the quality of finished products since the beginning of 2003. a major overhaul and reconstruction of the mill and an elevator began, a major overhaul of all equipment was completed with a partial replacement of worn-out equipment and the purchase of additional equipment. Also, for the uninterrupted operation of the main production, a major overhaul was carried out in auxiliary shops (energy shop, boiler room), a new mechanical repair shop was built. Completion of the reconstruction is scheduled for the 3rd quarter of 2005. After the completion of the reconstruction, the productivity of the mill will reach 500 tons of grain per day.
Along with the overhaul of LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan" during 2002-2004. purposefully increased the volume of grain processing, not having sufficient working capital for the purchase of grain, deliberately worked at a minimum profitability, thereby achieving a significant share in the flour milling market. Thanks to this, almost all regions of Kazakhstan are covered, a representative office of the company is opened in Almaty. There are permanent partners in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. From far abroad countries, we have established partnerships with large trading house in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. In addition, there are constant offers to supply flour to Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan and Georgia. Work is underway to find distribution channels to China. As a result, today the demand for products exceeds technical capabilities enterprises several times, which confirms the correctness of the decision to increase production capacity.
Taking into account the market demand and for the purpose of further growth of the company "Flour of Kazakhstan" LLP in the middle of 2004. a subsidiary company with 100% participation of Flour of Kazakhstan LLP - Pavlodar Uni LLC was opened in Uzbekistan in Tashkent. At about the same time, an elevator with a grain storage capacity of 70,000 tons was purchased in the Irtysh district of the Pavlodar region, for the purpose of servicing which a subsidiary LLP "Priirtyshya Grain" was created. At the same time, Italian pasta equipment was purchased and construction began on the territory of Flour of Kazakhstan LLP of a pasta factory. Another affiliated company is Veresk LLP, on the basis of which grain production is developing. In 2005 about 7,000 hectares were sown with wheat, for the first time in Pavlodar region, chemical fallows were prepared on 12,000 hectares. In 2006 sown 50,000 ha.
The grain processing industry is one of the most dynamically developing industries Food Industry Republic of Kazakhstan. In grain processing today the leading position is occupied by the flour-grinding industry.
The total capacity of the mill enterprises of the republic is currently estimated at 4.5 - 5.0 million tons per year. The volume of flour production in recent years is at the level of 2.1 million tons, of which about 1.6 million tons is domestic consumption, and the rest is export. The export of flour is one of the priority areas industries.
Table 1 - Export of flour in recent years is presented in the table.
| Type of export products |
Export* by years, thousand tons |
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Currently, Kazakhstan is the third largest exporter of flour in the world (in terms of physical volume), after the EU and Turkey. If we consider this indicator in terms of per capita, then Kazakhstan can be called the world leader in the export of flour. The main share of exports is the countries of the Central Asian region. Promising is the development of flour exports to Mongolia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, as well as to the countries of the Middle East and China.
In the future, the export of flour from Kazakhstan must be developed in every possible way. The potential for exporting flour, without prejudice to the food security of the republic, is estimated at no less than 1 million tons of flour per year.
The vast majority of flour is produced at large mills (60 - 70% of the total), which include LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan". The quality of domestic flour is high both because of the quality of domestic grain, and due to the fact that flour in our republic is produced only according to GOST, there is no production of flour with reduced indicators in Kazakhstan. Moreover, a number of domestic enterprises produce flour with indicators that are higher than the requirements of the standards.
The geographical, demographic and natural and climatic conditions of Kazakhstan dictate the need to further increase the production volumes and quality of flour and other grain processing products, to saturate the domestic and foreign markets, improve production efficiency.
Taking into account the current situation on the market and the trend of its further development, Flour of Kazakhstan LLP is implementing an appropriate marketing strategy for the sale of its products - in parallel, several promising distribution channels are being developed.
2.2 Estimating the cost of production and sales of products
Estimating the costs of production and sales of products usually begins with a study of the dynamics of the total amount of operating costs in general and for the main elements.
Table 1 - Production and sales costs
| Expenditures |
Amount, thousand tenge |
Cost structure, % |
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| deviation |
deviation |
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| Salary |
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| Deductions for social needs |
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| Material costs |
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| Including: |
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| raw materials |
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| electricity, etc. |
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| Depreciation |
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| Other costs |
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| Full cost |
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| Including: |
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| variable costs |
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| fixed costs |
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As can be seen from Table 1, the costs of the enterprise for the reporting period increased by 6216 thousand tenge, or 8%. Growth occurred in all types and especially in material costs. The amount of both variable and fixed costs has increased. The structure of costs has also changed somewhat: the share of material costs and depreciation of fixed assets has increased due to inflation, while the share of wages has decreased.
The total cost (3tot) may change due to:
The volume of output for the whole enterprise (VVP)
Its structures (Ud.v.);
The level of variable costs per unit of output (VC);
The amounts of fixed costs for the entire output (FC):
Data for factor analysis of the total amount of costs with the division of costs into variables and fixed are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 - Costs for production and sale of products, thousand tenge
| Product type |
Cost level, thousand tenge |
Production volume, thousand kg |
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| Including |
Including |
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| variables |
permanent |
variables |
permanent |
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| Top grade |
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| Flour of Kazakhstan |
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Table 2 shows that due to the increase in output by 0.5% or 46 thousand kg. the amount of variable costs increased by 4833 thousand tenge (59651-54818). Fixed costs increased by 1383 thousand tenge (24517-23134), which was also one of the reasons for the increase in the total cost.
Thus, the total cost is higher than the base cost by 6216 thousand tenge (84168-77952), or by 8%, including due to changes in the volume of production - by 46 thousand tenge (10003-9957).
For a deeper study of the reasons for the change in the total amount of costs, they analyze the accounting estimates for individual types of products, compare the actual level of costs per unit of output with the planned and cost items. We will make a factorial analysis of the cost of production - the highest grade.
Table 3 - Factor analysis of the cost of premium flour
Using the data in Table 3, we will calculate the influence of factors on the change in the cost of premium flour using the chain substitution method:
where, VVP is the volume of output;
b0, b1 - the sum of variable costs per unit of production for the base and reporting years;
FC is the amount of fixed costs.
Similar calculations are made for each type of product (table 4)
Table 4 - Calculation of the influence of factors of the first level on the change in the cost of individual types of products
| Product type |
Production volume, kg |
Fixed costs for the entire output, thousand tenge |
Variable costs per unit of production, tenge |
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| Top grade |
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| Flour of Kazakhstan |
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From the table above, there is a negative trend, since the growth in production for a given period is insignificant, that is, fixed costs are growing, and variable costs per unit of production are constant for all types of products. Except for the second grade of flour, where there is a positive situation, that is, for the period under review, fixed costs decreased by 398 thousand tenge.
Table 5 - Analysis of the cost of production by cost items
| cost item |
Costs per unit of production, tenge |
Cost structure, % |
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| Deviation |
Deviation |
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| Raw materials and basic materials |
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| Fuel and energy |
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| Wages of production workers |
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| Deductions for social needs |
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| Costs for the maintenance and operation of equipment |
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| overhead costs |
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| General running costs |
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| Loss from marriage |
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| Other operating expenses |
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| Selling expenses |
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| including variables |
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The given data show an increase in all cost items and, in particular, expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment by 1.306 tenge, general production expenses by 0.026 tenge, general production expenses - 0.418 tenge, losses from defects - 0.360 tenge, other production expenses by 0.008 tenge and commercial expenses for 0.005 tenge. And for other items, there is a decrease in the cost of one product.
The decrease in the cost item for raw materials and materials is associated with the reconstruction carried out at the enterprise, i.e. the production capacity of the enterprise was increased. There was also a decrease in the wages of production workers, this is due to the automated production of products. All this has a positive effect on the cost of production.
The following table examines wages in more detail, that is, how this factor affects the cost of finished products, as well as the dynamics of this indicator for 2005-2006.
Table 6 - Factor analysis of wages per unit of output.
| Product type |
Specific labor intensity, man-hour |
Level of payment for 1 man-hour, tenge |
Salary for 1 product, tenge |
Change, tenge |
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| including through |
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| laboriousness |
wage level |
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| Top grade |
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| Flour of Kazakhstan |
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From the above analyzed table, it can be seen that the specific labor intensity decreased for the following types of products: the highest grade by 0.25 tenge, the first grade - 0.06 tenge, for the second grade there is an increase in specific labor intensity by 0.07 tenge.
The level of remuneration for this period increased for all types of products, except for the second grade of flour, where there is a decrease in the level of remuneration by 2.93 tenge.
In the above assessment, the following key positions were identified, since, if we consider the overall production of products, it is clear that fixed costs are still growing despite the increase in production, i.e. the company's capacities are not fully loaded.
If we consider in terms of a unit of production, then a positive trend can be traced, i.e. there was a decrease in raw materials and materials, wages of production workers.
In general, the situation is stable at this enterprise, and even for some types of products there is a positive shift.
3. Ways to reduce the cost of production and sales of products for LLP "Flour of Kazakhstan"
Every entrepreneur strives to obtain the highest possible profit. And here, in addition to the factors of increasing the volume of production, promoting it to unfilled markets, and more, the problem of reducing the costs of production and sale of products is inexorably put forward.
In the traditional view, the most important ways to reduce costs are saving all types of resources consumed in production: labor and material.
So, a significant share in the structure of costs for the production and sale of products is wages. Therefore, the task of reducing the labor intensity of products, increasing labor productivity, and reducing the number of administrative and maintenance personnel is relevant.
Reducing the labor intensity of products, increasing labor productivity can be achieved in various ways. The most important of them are the mechanization and automation of production, the development and application of advanced, high-performance technologies, the replacement and modernization of outdated equipment. However, some measures to improve the applied equipment and technology will not give the proper return without improving the organization of production and labor.
Proper organization of labor is important for increasing labor productivity: preparing the workplace, fully loading it, applying advanced methods and labor techniques, and more.
Material resources occupy up to 3/5 in the structure of production costs. This explains the importance of saving these resources, their rational use. At the forefront here is the use of resource-saving technological processes. It is also important to increase the exactingness and widespread use of incoming quality control of raw materials and components supplied from suppliers.
At foreign enterprises, such factors are also considered to reduce the costs of production and sale of products, such as determining and observing the optimal size of a batch of purchased materials, the optimal size of a series of products launched into production, deciding whether to produce or purchase individual components or components from other manufacturers .
It is known that the larger the batch of purchased raw materials, the greater the average annual stock and the greater the amount of costs associated with the storage of these raw materials, materials (rent for storage facilities, losses during long-term storage, losses associated with inflation, etc.).
The main purpose of the cost is to identify and use the available reserves to reduce costs and increase on-farm savings. Cost plans should be based on progressive standards for labor costs, equipment use, consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel and energy, taking into account the best practices of other enterprises. Only with scientifically organized cost rationing is it possible to identify and use the reserves for further reducing the cost of production.
With the release of one type of product, the unit cost of this product is an indicator of the level and dynamics of costs for its production. To characterize the cost of heterogeneous products, plans and reports use indicators of reducing the cost of comparable marketable products and costs per 1 tenge of marketable products. The enterprise plan also contains a summary estimate of production costs and planned cost estimates for individual products.
The indicator of costs per 1 tenge of marketable products is determined based on the level of costs for the production of marketable products in relation to the cost of products in the wholesale prices of the enterprise.
The indicator of costs per 1 tenge of marketable output not only characterizes the planned level of cost reduction, but also determines the level of profitability of marketable products. Its value depends both on the reduction in the cost of production, and on changes in wholesale prices, assortment and quality of products.
In the plan, costs are calculated for the planned volume and range of products, but its actual range may differ from the planned one. Therefore, the planned target for costs per 1 tenge of products is recalculated for the actual assortment and then compared with data on costs per 1 ruble. products.
Establishing common, uniform rules for all enterprises is important for proper planning and accounting for the cost of production. In particular, common to all industries is the procedure for including in the cost of production only those costs that are directly or indirectly related to the production of products. Methodological guidelines for the development of the plan define the following typical list of technical and economic factors that determine the reduction in the cost of production:
a) Raising the technical level of production. As an option, this is the introduction of a new, progressive technology, mechanization and automation of production processes; improving the use and application of new types of raw materials and materials; change in the design and technical characteristics of products; other factors that increase the technical level of production.
For each event, calculate economical effect which translates into lower production costs. The savings from the implementation of measures is determined by comparing the cost per unit of output before and after the implementation of measures and multiplying the resulting difference by the volume of production in the planned year:
E \u003d (SS - CH) * AN
where E - saving direct current costs;
CC - direct current costs per unit of output before the implementation of the measure;
SN - direct current costs after the implementation of the measure;
AN - the volume of production in natural units from the beginning of the implementation of the event until the end of the planned year.
Cost reduction can occur when creating automated control systems, using computers, improving and modernizing existing equipment and technology. Costs are also reduced as a result of the integrated use of raw materials, the use of economical substitutes, the full use of waste in production, as well as a decrease in its material consumption and labor intensity, a decrease in the weight of machinery and equipment, a decrease in overall dimensions, etc.
b) Improving the organization of production and labor. Cost reduction can occur as a result of changes in the organization of production, forms and methods of labor with the development of production specialization; improvement of production management and cost reduction; improving the use of fixed assets; improvement of material and technical supply; reduction of transport costs; other factors that increase the level of organization of production.
With the simultaneous improvement of technology and the organization of production, it is necessary to establish the savings for each factor separately and include them in the appropriate groups. If it is difficult to make such a division, then the savings can be calculated based on the targeted nature of the activities or by groups of factors.
Certain reserves for cost reduction are laid down in the elimination or reduction of costs that are not necessary in the normal organization of the production process (excess consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, additional payments to workers for deviation from normal working conditions and overtime work, payments on recourse claims, etc.).
c) Changes in the volume and structure of products, which can lead to a relative decrease in fixed costs (except for depreciation), a relative decrease in depreciation, a change in the range and range of products, and an increase in its quality. Semi-fixed costs do not directly depend on the quantity of output. With an increase in production volume, their number per unit of production decreases, which leads to a decrease in its cost. Relative savings on semi-fixed costs is determined by the formula:
EP \u003d (T * PS) / 100
where EP - savings of semi-fixed costs
PS - the amount of semi-fixed costs in the base year
T is the growth rate of marketable output compared to the base year.
The relative change in depreciation charges is calculated separately. Part of the depreciation (as well as other production costs) is not included in the cost, but is reimbursed from other sources (special funds, payment for services to the side, not included in the composition of marketable products, etc.), so the total amount of depreciation may decrease. The decrease is determined by the actual data for the reporting period. The total savings on depreciation deductions are calculated using the formula:
EA \u003d (AOK / DO - A1K / D1) * D1
where EA - savings due to the relative decrease in depreciation;
A0, A1 - the amount of depreciation in the base and reporting year;
K - coefficient taking into account the amount of depreciation charged to the cost of production in the base year;
In order to avoid a repeated account, the total amount of savings is reduced (increased) by the part that is taken into account by other factors.
Changing the range and range of products is one of the important factors affecting the level of production costs. With different profitability of individual products (in relation to the cost), shifts in the composition of products associated with improving its structure and increasing production efficiency can lead to both a decrease and an increase in production costs. The impact of changes in the structure of products on the cost is analyzed in terms of variable costs according to the costing items of the standard nomenclature.
d) Industry and other factors. These include: the commissioning and development of new shops, production units and industries, the preparation and development of production in existing associations and enterprises; other factors. It is necessary to analyze the reserves for cost reduction as a result of the liquidation of obsolete and the commissioning of new workshops and industries at a higher technical basis, with the best economic performance.
Significant reserves are laid down in the reduction of costs for the preparation and development of new types of products and new technological processes, in the reduction of the costs of the start-up period for newly commissioned shops and facilities. The calculation of the amount of change in expenses is carried out according to the formula:
EP \u003d (C1 / D1 - C0 / D0) * D1
Where EP is the change in the costs of preparing and mastering production;
C0, C1 - the sum of the costs of the base and reporting years;
D0, D1 - the volume of marketable products of the base and reporting year.
e) The success of the struggle to reduce the costs of production and sale of products is determined primarily by the growth of labor productivity of workers, which, under certain conditions, ensures savings in wages.
Consistent implementation of the regime of economy at enterprises is manifested primarily in reducing the cost of material resources per unit of output, reducing the cost of servicing production and management, and eliminating losses from marriage and other unproductive costs.
Material costs, at Flour of Kazakhstan LLP, as in most sectors of the food industry, occupy a large share in the structure of production costs, therefore, even a slight saving of raw materials, materials, fuel and energy in the production of each unit of production in the whole enterprise gives a major effect.
Reducing the cost of production maintenance and management also reduces the cost of production. The size of these costs per unit of output depends not only on the volume of output, but also on their absolute amount. The smaller the amount of shop and general factory expenses for the whole enterprise, the lower the cost of each product, all other things being equal.
Reserves for reducing shop and general factory expenses lie primarily in the simplification and cheapening of the administrative apparatus, in savings on administrative expenses. The wages of auxiliary and ancillary workers are also included in the composition of shop and general factory expenses to a large extent. Carrying out measures to mechanize auxiliary and ancillary work leads to a reduction in the number of workers employed in these works, and, consequently, to saving shop and general factory costs.
Significant reserves for reducing costs are contained in the reduction of losses from marriage and other unproductive costs. Studying the causes of marriage, identifying its culprit makes it possible to carry out measures to eliminate losses from marriage, reduce and most rationally use production waste.
The factors and reserves identified as a result of the analysis must be summarized in the final conclusions, the total influence of all factors on reducing the total cost per unit of output should be determined.
For the successful implementation of the above measures, the enterprise must have a consistently established cost accounting methodology, with the help of which a single classification of cost items is built for all structural divisions; the method of cost rationing is determined to divide costs into economically justified (useful) and redundant ones; methods for calculating the cost of products and services are being created; methods for determining the financial result (profit) are being developed.
Conclusion
The problem of development and use in domestic practice of new approaches to good governance costs of the enterprise is widely discussed in the domestic literature.
Identification and study of production cost factors provides the solution of the following tasks necessary for each specific enterprise:
Information Support administration of the enterprise for making management decisions, taking into account their economic consequences;
monitoring and control over the actual level of costs, comparing them with the standards and planned sizes in order to identify deviations and form an economic strategy for the future;
calculation of the cost of manufactured products to evaluate finished products and calculate financial results;
identification and evaluation of the economic results of the activities of individual structural units;
systematization of accounting information for making long-term decisions: on changing the range of products, capital investments in fixed assets, etc.
To ensure the fulfillment of the listed tasks, a single accounting system should be organized at the enterprise, which in the current activity performs the following sequential functions:
primary reflection of the spent resources in production as they arise in the process of production activities;
localization of data on production costs by type of activity, production, cost centers, etc.;
grouping costs according to the time of their occurrence: past costs, costs of the reporting and future periods;
distribution of the general expenses of the enterprise between production divisions; reimbursement of general expenses by including in the cost of finished products and work in progress.
In addition, based on the results of the assessment of the costs of production and sale of products for the enterprise - the object of study, the following directions for reducing the level of costs can be proposed:
1) special attention should be paid to the development of material consumption rates, standard labor intensity of products in order to reduce the level of material costs and labor costs, as the most significant in the total cost of the enterprise;
2) the development of standards will make it possible to evaluate the efforts of managers to minimize costs by comparing the standard and actual costs per unit of output;
4) marketing efforts are needed to increase the volume of sales of the company's products and services to solvent buyers. The growth of sales volumes, while maintaining the level of fixed costs of the enterprise, will improve performance economic efficiency;
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