Functions of ScienceFUNCTIONS OF SCIENCE
Cultural - the process of forming a person,
as a subject of activity and cognition
Socio-regulatory - science as a social
strength
Projective-constructive
Ecological
Neo-humanistic - attitude towards caring for
future generations
SUBJECT AND PROBLEMS OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The history of science - understanding the historicaldevelopment of scientific knowledge.
Its development began in the 19th century. in France.
The subject of the history of science
THE SUBJECT OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCEAggregate
cognitive
models and laws
historical and scientific
development of mankind.
Tasks and problems of the history of science
TASKS AND PROBLEMS OF HISTORYSCIENCE
identify researchers, noting their misconceptions and errors
look for valuable, but forgotten, that is in every science
study of the features of the development of science in certain
periods
describe the mechanism of development of science
identify general patterns of development of scientific knowledge
ideas about the methods and techniques of scientific thinking
solving scientific problems with the help of historical
analogy
increasing the cultural and scientific potential of society integration of natural science and
humanitarian knowledge
laying the foundation for model development
development of society
expansion of the source base for scientific
research
clarification of the conceptual apparatus,
improvement of research methodology
Empirical base of the history of science
EMPIRICAL BASE OF HISTORYSCIENCE
scientific texts
of the past
correspondence of scientists
autobiographical
essays and memoirs
PROBLEMS AND PRINCIPLES OF HISTORICAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
Presentism - aspirationrestore the past of science,
using terminological
the language of modernity;
antique desire
restore the past to
development of scientific ideas without
links to the present.
Complementarity principle
PRINCIPLEOPTIONS
Antiquarianism and Presentism
complement each other.
Presentism understands
the past, but antiquarianism
explains it.
Kuhn Thomas Samuel (1922–1996), American historian and philosopher of science
KUN THOMAS SAMUEL (1922-1996)AMERICAN HISTORIAN AND
PHILOSOPHER OF SCIENCE
impossible to translate
the term "phlogiston"
(belief in existence
a special substance
which is not in
reality) to
modern language of science.
Presentist approach to
this problem
impossible, she can
be considered only
from the point of view of antiquity.
Aristotle's classification (384-322 BC)
ARISTOTLE'S CLASSIFICATION(384-322 BC)
1.
theoretical
2.
3.
First
philosophy
(metaphysics)
Maths
Physics
Practical
Creative
Logic - organon
(gr. tool or
tool)
knowledge
F. Bacon's classification (1561-1626)
CLASSIFICATION F. BACON(1561-1626)
By criterion
cognitive
capabilities
person:
memory,
mind,
imagination. 1.
History is based on memory
Natural
civil
2.
Philosophy - based on reason
3.
natural theology
Anthropology
Philosophy of man
Civic philosophy
Philosophy of nature
Poetry is based on imagination
Key to sciences
KEY TO THE SCIENCESLogics
Dialectics
Rhetoric
Theory of knowledge
Hegel's classification (1770-1831)
HEGEL'S CLASSIFICATION (17701831)1.
2.
3.
Criterion -
state of the art
absolute idea
or world spirit
Logics
Philosophy
nature
Philosophy of spirit Logic = Dialectic =
Theory of knowledge
The doctrine of being
Essence Doctrine
The doctrine of the concept Philosophy of nature
Mechanics
Physics
organic physics
Geological nature
vegetable nature
animal organisms Philosophy of spirit
subjective spirit
Anthropology
Psychology
Objective Spirit
social history
Absolute Spirit
Philosophy, science of sciences
Classification by O. Comte (1798-1857)
CLASSIFICATION O.KONT (17981857)1.
2.
3.
Initial
mathematical and astronomical
Intermediate
physicochemical
The ultimate biological and sociological
Classification by F. Engels (1829-1895)
CLASSIFICATION F. ENGELS(1829-1895)
1.
2.
3.
4.
By criterion
forms
movements
matter
Mechanics
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Classification by V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945)
CLASSIFICATION V.I.VERNADSKY (1863-1945)
1.
2.
By criterion
character
studied
object
Sciences where the object is -
all reality
planets, space
science object
which is
Earth
Classification of sciences by subject and method of knowledge
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES ONTHE SUBJECT AND METHOD OF KNOWLEDGE
natural sciences
Social Sciences
Sciences of Cognition and Thinking
Technical science
Maths
According to the criterion of practical significance
ACCORDING TO THE CRITERION OF PRACTICALSIGNIFICANCE
Fundamental
Applied
Periodization of the history of science
PERIODIZATION OF HISTORYSCIENCE
Science classification
Periodization is theirs
time expansion
in the form of historical
periods. The stage of history is integrity,
having its own structure and
characteristics
Borders between stages
stories are flexible and movable
The problem of periodization of the history of science
PERIODIZATION PROBLEMHISTORIES OF SCIENCE
understanding of the historical process in
different phases
establish the specifics of these phases, similarities and
differences, boundaries and connection
correct drawing of boundaries between phases
strive to study all levels in order to
then select among them the main, "nodal".
Periodization of science in terms of the ratio of analysis and synthesis
PERIODIZATION OF SCIENCE FROM A POINTVIEW RATIO ANALYSIS
AND SYNTHESIS
Analytical
Peculiarities:
continuous differentiation of sciences;
the predominance of empirical knowledge;
focus on research
objects, and not on their changes;
consideration of nature unchanging, beyond development,
outside the interconnection of its phenomena.
Includes classic and non-classical
natural science. 2. Synthetic, integrative
Peculiarities:
The emergence of interdisciplinary problems
The emergence of "butt" scientific disciplines of physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry, psychophysics,
geochemistry, etc.
The process of building a holistic science of
nature and a unified science of all reality in
in general.
Coincides with post-nonclassical
natural science.
Two types of periodization:
TWO TYPES OF PERIODIZATION:1) formal, when the basis of the division of history
the subject is placed on the corresponding steps
one or another separate “feature” (or a group of them);
2) dialectical, when the basis (criterion)
this division becomes the main
contradiction of the subject under study, which
must be distinguished from all other
contradictions of the latter.
Prescience
PRE-SCIENCEPreclassic stage where
elements are born
(prerequisites) of science.
The beginnings of knowledge
in the ancient East
in Greece and Rome
in the Middle Ages, up to 16-17
centuries.
Science as a holistic phenomenon
SCIENCE AS A COMPLETE PHENOMENONOccurs in modern times due to
sprouts from philosophy
three stages:
classical,
non-classical,
post-non-classical (modern).
The criterion for this periodization is
correlation (contradiction) of the object and
subject of knowledge. Type of
rationality
Characteristics
rationality
classical
everything related to the subject
irrelevant
non-classical
funds are taken into account
knowledge
post-non-classical
value structures are taken into account Each stage has its own paradigm
(a set of theoretical, methodological and
other attitudes), their “picture of the world”, their
fundamental ideas.
Modern Science and Society
MODERN SCIENCE AND SOCIETYCommunication vector "science - society"
in the 19th century was directed from science to society, so
how the history of civilization acted as
functions of development of scientific ideas,
in the twentieth century - from society to science. Science appears as
function of the development of society.
The sociality of science
SOCIALITY OF SCIENCEScience turns into
complex social
body,
including
social structures
different type:
laboratories,
universities,
groups of scientists
science community
etc.
Public support for science
PUBLIC SUPPORTSCIENCE
financial (from the state or private
funds);
material (land, buildings, equipment and
etc.);
intellectual (influx of young people into science);
high social status, prestige
(society's understanding of the value of science as
such).
GENERAL MODELS OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
1) the history of science asprogressive translational
process (cumulative model);
2) the history of science as a process
development of scientific knowledge through
scientific revolutions;
3) the history of science as a set
various cognitive
case study programs. The first model comes from the installation that new
knowledge is always more perfect than before, therefore
the historical development of science is the preparation of its
modern state. theoretical
The basis of this model was the philosophy
positivism (late 19th - early 20th centuries). The second model appeared in the middle of the twentieth century. due
with the crisis of positivism. She comes from the idea
discontinuities in the development of scientific knowledge. Time from
time in science there are revolutions,
fundamentally changing the paradigm and
direction of scientific knowledge. The third model understands any event in science
as unique in other historical
conditions. It allows simultaneous
the existence of different theories, in different ways
explaining the same scientific facts.
In addition to these models, the history of science
can be studied through the theories of individual scientists
or scientific schools, exploring a certain
area of scientific knowledge.
The structure of scientific knowledge
STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFICKNOWLEDGE
scientific knowledge
Empirical
level
Theoretical
level
Mathematics 1826 - theory of non-Euclidean geometry (N.I. Lobachevsky) Probability theory (A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky) 1826 - theory of non-Euclidean geometry (N.I. Lobachevsky) Probability theory (A.A. Markov , M.V. Ostrogradsky) N.I. Lobachevsky A.A. Markov M.V. Ostrogradsky
Astronomy Works on astrometry and the study of binary stars. Establishment of the presence of light absorption in interstellar space (V.Ya. Struve) Study of terrestrial magnetism (I.M. Simonov) I.I. Littrov - the first professor of astronomy at Kazan University Works on astrometry and the study of binary stars. Establishment of the presence of light absorption in interstellar space (V.Ya. Struve) Study of terrestrial magnetism (I.M. Simonov) I.I. Littrov - the first professor of astronomy at Kazan University V. Ya. Struve I. M. Simonov
Physics Series physical devices and the discovery of an electric arc (V.V. Petrov) The rule that determines the direction of the induction current (E.H. Lenz) х years the development of the telegraph apparatus and the invention of its modifications (B.S. Jacobi) The recording electromagnetic telegraph (P.D. Schilling) gg. - the first steam-powered railway in Russia (E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs) The world's first use of a microscope to study the structure of metal and the development of a method for obtaining damask steel (P.P. Anosov) A number of physical instruments and the discovery of an electric arc (V.V. Petrov) The rule that determines the direction of the induction current (E.Kh. Lenz) x gg development of the telegraph apparatus and the invention of its modifications (B.S. Jacobi) Recording electromagnetic telegraph (P.D. Schilling) gg. - the first steam-powered railway in Russia (E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs) The world's first use of a microscope to study the structure of metal and the development of a method for obtaining damask steel (P.P. Anosov) V.V. Petrov P. P. Anosov P. D. Schilling
Chemistry Periodic law of chemical elements (Mendeleev) Chemical and technological laboratories (P.P. Zinin and K.K. Klaus) Discovery of a method for the artificial production of aniline (Zinin) 1844 - a new chemical element - ruthenium (Claus) 2nd floor x gg. - formation of the 2nd center of chemical science - at St. Petersburg University Discoveries in the field of metal chemistry (N.N. Beketov) Periodic law of chemical elements (Mendeleev) Chemical and technological laboratories (P.P. Zinin and K.K. Klaus) Discovery of the method artificial production of aniline (Zinin) 1844 - a new chemical element - ruthenium (Claus) 2nd half of the 19th century. - formation of the 2nd center of chemical science - at St. Petersburg University Discoveries in the field of metal chemistry (N.N.Beketov) D.I. Mendeleev N.N. BeketovP. P. Zinin
Medicine Emergence of military field surgery. The first use of ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), the introduction of a fixed plaster cast, a number of new surgical operations(N.I. Pirogov) The beginning of the use of the antiseptic method in operations (N.V. Sklifosovsky) The emergence of military field surgery. The first use of ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), the introduction of a fixed plaster cast, a number of new surgical operations (N.I. Pirogov) The beginning of the use of the antiseptic method during operations (N.V. Sklifosovsky) N.I. Pirogov N.V. sklifosovsky
History 12-volume "History of the Russian State" (N.M. Karamzin) "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes (S.M. Solovyov) "Course of Russian history" (V.O. Klyuchevsky) Foundation of Russian paleography (A .Kh. Vostokova) 12-volume "History of the Russian State" (N.M. Karamzin) "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes (S.M. Solovyov) "Course of Russian history" (V.O. Klyuchevsky) Founding Russian paleography (A.Kh. Vostokova) N.M. Karamzin S.M. Solovyov V.O. Klyuchevsky
Philosophy Formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science Great philosophers: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, VL Soloviev Emergence of a rich spectrum of original schools and currents Formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science Great philosophers: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, V. L. Soloviev Emergence of a rich spectrum of original schools and trends
Geography Routes to the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, Far East, Alaska, southern steppes and Central Asian countries. - The 1st Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky Study and survey of the Pacific Islands, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, the Kamchatka Peninsula - round-the-world expedition, the discovery of Antarctica (F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev) Routes to the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East, Alaska, the southern steppes and the Central Asian countries. - The 1st Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky Study and survey of the Pacific Islands, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, the Kamchatka Peninsula – round-the-world expedition, discovery of Antarctica (F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev) I.F. Kruzenshtern Yu.F. Lisyansky F.F. Bellingshausen M.P. Lazarev
The result of scientific development In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many areas of knowledge that have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political reforms contributed to the fact that science developed in to a large extent in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them.
general characteristics The significant development of the Russian educational system at the beginning of the 19th century was due, first of all, to socio-economic changes in the country. During this period, education is no longer a privilege only for the nobles and noble people, it becomes more widely available. The reform was the basis for the development of the education system. The country was divided into 6 educational districts, each of which had educational institutions of all types. The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions.
The best universities and lyceums of the first half of the 19th century 1. Moscow University (Moscow) 2. Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (Petersburg) 3. Demidov Lyceum (Yaroslavl) 4. Richelieu Lyceum (Odessa) 1. Moscow University (Moscow) 2. Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (Petersburg) 3. Demidov Lyceum (Yaroslavl) 4. Richelieu Lyceum (Odessa) Moscow University Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum
History of science is a study of the phenomenon of science in its history. On the one hand, science represents objective knowledge, and on the other hand, the process of obtaining and using it by people.
Studying history modern science draws on many surviving original or republished texts.
However, the words "science" and "scientist" themselves came into use only
in the XVIII-XX centuries, and before that, natural scientists called their occupation "natural philosophy".
Although empirical research has been known since ancient times (for example, the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus), and the scientific method was developed in its foundations in the Middle Ages (for example, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni or Roger Bacon)
The beginning of modern science dates back to the New Age, a period called scientific revolution that occurred in the XVI-XVII centuries in Western Europe.
ancient science
Characteristic features of ancient science:
- contemplation
- self-sufficiency
- logical evidence
- Openness to criticism
- Aesthetic attitude to the object of study.
ancient science
Formation of the first scientific programs: atomism; mathematical picture of the world of Pythagoreanism and Platonism; development of the theory of evidence (in particular, the apparatus of proof from the "contrary" by the Eleatics);
the fundamentalist program of Aristotle; construction of cosmological models. Creation of a deductive mathematical method. The transformation of mathematics into a coherent independent discipline (Euclid, Pythagoras, Archytas, Eudoxus, Hippocrates, Theaetetus, etc. Euclid's "Beginnings" is an encyclopedia of ancient mathematics, its historical significance. Ancient theoretical astronomy (Eudoxus, Hipparchus, Claudius Ptolemy, Aristarchus of Samos).
medieval science
Science and religion - the main antithesis of the values of the Middle Ages
The Middle Ages are characterized by:
- Theological and textual character;
- The idea of the total, the divine, the absence of the partial;
- All things are regarded as symbols of the divine mind;
- The word as an instrument of peace, given by God to man. The word written in the Bible is especially important;
- The existence of the world has a finite design;
- Cognition is seen as a hierarchical process;
- Natural magic, it was believed, could give knowledge of hidden natural laws;
- The experimental method was completely excluded.
Representatives of internalism :
G. Gerlak
It is believed that science develops only due to internal scientific factors: due to the objective logic of the emergence and solution of scientific problems, due to the internal need of science itself to set up experiments, create new concepts, and solve problems. In the works of internalist historians, the history of science appears as a purely intellectual history - the history of the mutual generation of ideas, reminiscent of the self-development of the absolute spirit.
Representatives of externalism : B. Hessen D. Bernal J. Haldane E. Zilsel D. Needham
Founded in the 1930s. largely under the influence of Marxism, insists that the decisive influence on the development of science is exerted by socio-economic, i.e. non-scientific factors. Therefore, when studying the history of science, the main task is to reconstruct the socio-cultural conditions (“social orders”) in which certain ideas and theories arise and develop.
new time
From the end of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries, radical changes took place in science associated with the formation of a new non-classical natural science. In the 20-30s of the XX century. logical positivism or neo-positivism becomes the dominant trend in Western philosophy.
Big ideas, covering the entire universe, grow out of a continuous stream of empirical knowledge, they seek confirmation in this stream, they change, generalize, and concretize.
- Construction for empirical science of a neutral (that is, not imposing preconceived interpretations) language for describing the actual "states of affairs", so that theoretical provisions could be derived according to the strictest logical laws from the protocol sentences of experience, and theory predictions could be confirmed (verified) by referring to observation and experiment.
- Cognition through experiment
Representatives of the New Age
Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994)
Karl Popper studied the relationship between competing and successive scientific theories.
- In the process of knowledge development, the depth and complexity of the problems being solved grows, but this complexity depends on the very level of science at a certain time stage of its development.
- The transition from one theory to another does not express any accumulation of knowledge (a new theory consists of new problems generated by it).
- The goal of science is to achieve highly informative content.
The main concepts of his concept of scientific knowledge are the following: 1) the problem of demarcation (separation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific) 2) the principle of falsification (a theory cannot be tested for ultimate truth, but it can be refuted, falsified. For almost three hundred years, Newton's mechanics was considered true in all respects, and then new theories came to replace it. This is the case with any theory, it appears, reaches a stage of flowering, and then is refuted.)
3) the principle of fallibilism (any scientific knowledge is only hypothetical and subject to error. The growth of scientific knowledge consists in putting forward bold hypotheses and implementing their resolute refutation) 4) the theory of "three worlds" (the first world is the world of objects, the second world - world subjects and third peace - world objective knowledge, which is generated by the first and second worlds, but exists independently of them. The analysis of the growth and development of knowledge in this independent third world is the subject of the philosophy of science)
He believed that scientific knowledge develops spasmodically, through scientific revolutions. Any criterion makes sense only within the framework of a certain paradigm, a historically established system of views. The scientific revolution is a change of psychological paradigms by the scientific community. Thomas Kuhn's most famous work is The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
The course of the scientific revolution according to Kuhn:
1) Normal science - every new discovery can be explained from the standpoint of the dominant theory;
2) Extraordinary science is a crisis in science. The appearance of anomalies - inexplicable facts. An increase in the number of anomalies leads to the appearance alternative theories. In science, many opposing scientific schools coexist;
3) Scientific revolution - the formation of a new paradigm.
Description of the presentation on individual slides:
1 slide
Description of the slide:
Geography teacher GOKU JSC " Comprehensive school at penitentiary institutions” at PKU IK-8 Blagoveshchensk Lisenko Yu.V. Science in the 19th century. Creation of a scientific picture of the world
2 slide
Description of the slide:
Objectives: To determine the trends in the development of scientific thought in Europe in the 19th century; To acquaint students with the biographies of scientists and their discoveries; Determine the significance of scientific discoveries of the 19th century for the present.
3 slide
Description of the slide:
The 19th century is a special time in the development of science. Great discoveries follow one after another. Monopoly capitalism, large corporations ensured the implementation modern technologies and scientific discoveries. Technological advances have changed people's daily lives. Transport became convenient and accessible. Modern means of communication facilitated communication, and newspapers and radio brought all the news directly to the house. An integral part of the street landscape at the end of the 19th century was the figure of a boy - a newsboy shouting out the news.
4 slide
Description of the slide:
1800 - Volta created batteries. The age of inventions and discoveries begins. The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta created in 1800 a direct current source capable of constantly producing electricity. This first electric battery, called the voltaic column, was much more efficient and convenient than the then conventional capacitors, which required a long charge before each use.
5 slide
Description of the slide:
1816 - English postmen switched to bicycles: quickly and conveniently. The first bicycle, similar to those used today, was called Rover - "Wanderer" (or "Tramp"). It was made in 1884 by the English inventor John Kemp Starley and has been in production since 1885.
6 slide
Description of the slide:
1826 - photography was invented: events and people can now be immortalized. The first known attempt at chemical fixation was by Thomas Wedgwood and Humphrey Davy. Already in 1802, they could receive photograms using silver salts, without knowing how to fix them. The first practical success on the road to photography was the invention of heliography by Nicéphore Niépce. The earliest surviving image taken with this camera obscura technology is dated 1826 and is known as the View from the Window at Le Gras.
7 slide
Description of the slide:
1829 - Braille invented the alphabet and made it possible for blind people to read and write. Braille is a dotted tactile font designed for writing and reading by blind and visually impaired people. Designed in 1824 by the Frenchman Louis Braille, the son of a shoemaker.
8 slide
Description of the slide:
1832 - acetylene gas was discovered and its ability to weld metal. It became possible to use metal structures in the construction of bridges, houses, towers. Opened in 1836 by E. Davy, synthesized from coal and hydrogen.
9 slide
Description of the slide:
1854 - a new metal was born - aluminum. While it is used as decoration, but in the next century, aircraft will be made from it. Aluminum was first obtained by the Danish physicist Hans Oersted in 1825 by the action of potassium amalgam on aluminum chloride, followed by distillation of mercury. The name of the element is derived from lat. alumen - alum. Before opening industrial way obtaining aluminum, this metal was more expensive than gold. In 1889, the British, wishing to honor the great Russian chemist D. I. Mendeleev with a rich gift, gave him a balance of gold and aluminum
10 slide
Description of the slide:
1805 - matches - fire in a small box. Now safer and more convenient. The first matches were made in 1805 by the French chemist Jean Chancel, assistant to Professor Tenard. These were wooden matches that were ignited by the contact of a head made of a mixture of sulfur, bartolet salt and cinnabar with concentrated sulfuric acid. 1855 - celluloid was invented. Children's toys have become lighter and more practical. In 1855, the British metallurgist Alexander Parkes discovered a new substance based on nitrocellulose dissolved in ethanol. To mass-produce a new substance, which Parkes gave the name "parkesin". It is used for the manufacture of film and photographic films, tablets, rulers, cases musical instruments- harmonicas, various haberdashery goods, toys, etc. An almost irreplaceable material for the manufacture of table tennis balls.
11 slide
Description of the slide:
1866 - Humanity switches to artificial food. artificial food - food product, which is obtained from various substances (amino acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates), previously isolated from secondary raw materials of the meat and dairy industry, oilseeds and legumes, cereals, microorganisms, etc., as well as food additives. 1867 Sholes grants a patent to Relington for a typewriter. Like most other technical devices and inventions, the development of a mechanism typewriter was not the result of the efforts of one single person. Many people jointly or independently came up with the idea fast printing texts. The first patent for a machine of this kind was issued by the English Queen Anne to Henry Mill back in 1714.
12 slide
Description of the slide:
1866 - Singer invented sewing machine, and patented only a needle with a hole in the tip. Singer did not invent the sewing machine and never claimed to have done so. By 1850, when his first sewing machine, a number of models already existed. Singer spent 10 days to overcome the design flaws that these models had, which "shook the world" and made the inventor rich. 1866 - Alfred Nobel created dynamite - good and evil in "one bottle". Every year, since 1901, the Nobel Prize has been awarded for discoveries in science and the strengthening of peace. Among the representatives of science of the 19th century, there are also Nobel Prize winners.
13 slide
Description of the slide:
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. He noticed that if a copper wire is placed in a magnetic field, an electric current arises in it. This discovery gave life to all generators, dynamos and electric motors. Faraday was called the "Lord of Lightning" by his contemporaries. He became a member of the royal society and many academies of the world.
14 slide
Description of the slide:
The discovery of the English physicist Maxwell became a sensation. In the 60s he developed the electromagnetic theory of light. According to the theory, invisible electromagnetic waves exist in nature that transmit electricity in space. This is how the concept of non-mechanical motion was born. Light in Maxwell acts as a kind of electromagnetic oscillations. After 10 years, the German engineer Heinrich Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves and received them in the laboratory and proved that no objects can prevent their propagation. Based on these discoveries, Popov and Marconi created a wireless telegraph.
15 slide
Description of the slide:
The main feature of the natural science discoveries of the second half of the 19th century was that: the ideas about the structure of matter, space, movement, the development of wildlife, the causes of disease and the origin of life on earth changed radically. Science refuted previous knowledge and gave the key to the discovery of the invisible secrets of nature. A new picture of the world was being formed, because science came close to the structure of the atom. The development of science has led to advances in medicine, which is very important for all mankind. Thanks to science, the daily life of society has changed. New directions in science emerged: microbiology, nuclear physics - an unlimited field for new research and discoveries. The 19th century laid the foundations for the development of 20th century science and set the stage for many of the future inventions and technological innovations that we enjoy today. Scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in many areas and had a great influence on further development. Technological progress progressed uncontrollably.
16 slide
Description of the slide:
History presentation on the topic: "Education and Science". Completed by a student of grade 8 "B" Borisov Sergey Teacher Goryacheva I.V.
Education. At the very beginning of the XIX century. Russia has finally developed a system of higher, secondary and primary education. 1803 - a reform was carried out in the field of education, which led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city, and in every county town of a county school.
In 1811, the Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum was opened, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A. S. Pushkin). For a while, the Lyceum became not only the most prestigious educational institution but also the center of free thought.
Types of Schools under Nicholas I (children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild studied)
The volume of publication of literature for all segments of the population grew. In the 40s. The books of A. F. Smirdin’s publishing house, which published more than 70 collected works of major Russian writers, gained fame.
In 1806, I. A. Dvigubsky argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes. In 1816, I. E. Dyadkovsky put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are due to natural causes and are subject to general laws of development. In 1834, K. M. Baer created a work that became a serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms. "The universal law of the development of nature"
N. I. Pirogov, professor of the Medical Surgical Academy, who was the founder of military field surgery, became an outstanding representative of domestic medicine.
GEOLOGY. The struggle between the supporters of two theoretical trends - "Neptunists" and "Plutonists" became acute. Most geologists stood on the positions of plutonism. The main result of the development of geology was the conclusion that the Earth has a long history, during which its surface has changed significantly. Nikolai Ivanovich Koksharov compiled the first geological map of European Russia.
Astronomy. In astronomy there was a slow process of accumulation of knowledge. The main achievement was the creation of powerful telescopes, which made it possible to compile a more detailed description of the solar system. In 1839, the Pulkovo Observatory was opened.
Maths. M. V. Ostrogradskii made a great contribution to the development of mathematical physics. In 1826 - the creation of non-Euclidean geometry by professor of Kazan University N. I. Lobachevsky.
PHYSICS. In the field of physics, the 19th century began with the invention of the first source of electric current. In 1802, VV Petrov developed a galvanic battery. In 1833 -E. H. Lenz established the rule for the direction of the driving force of induction. In 1840 - B. S. Jacobi invented electroforming. In 1832, P. L. Schilling created the world's first practical electric telegraph. In 1850 - Jacobi invented a direct-printing apparatus for the telegraph.
Chemistry. K. S. Kirchhoff - developed a method for obtaining glucose K. I. Grotgus - discovered the basic law of photochemistry. In 1840 - G. I. Hess discovered the basic law of thermochemistry. In 1826 -1827. P. G. Sobolevsky and V. V. Lyubarsky laid the foundation for powder metallurgy. A. A. Voskresensky, Yu. F. Fritsshe, and N. N. Zinin stood at the origins of organic chemistry.
Science and production! In 1817, at the Pozhevsky plant, the first experiments were successfully carried out on the conversion of cast iron into iron by the puddling method. In 1843, construction began on the first double-track railway between Petersburg and Moscow. The development of mechanical engineering began.