Konovalova N.V., Trifonova E.N. Published in the collection:
"Actual problems of science, economics and education of the XXI century" - 2012 (Part 2)

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Annotation:

An essential condition for the implementation of economic activity is the provision of the organization, along with material, labor, financial resources, the necessary fixed assets - buildings, structures, equipment, vehicles and other means. Fixed assets have a direct impact on the efficiency, quality of work and the results of all financial and economic activities of the enterprise. The economic and legal support of accounting for fixed assets in the Russian Federation is relevant at the present stage.

The economic nature and role of fixed assets in the production and non-production sectors have always been the subject of debate among scientists and specialists in the field of economics and accounting. A lot of scientific works are devoted to the interpretation of this category, but the unity of views on the issue of determining the economic essence of fixed assets among accountants and economists has not yet been achieved.

Along with the concept of fixed assets, economists use the concepts of fixed assets and fixed capital.

The study of the history of economic doctrines has shown that the category of "fixed capital" is the ancestor of these concepts. The concept of "fixed capital" was introduced into economic theory by the Scottish economist, the founder of the classical school of political economy, Adam Smith. He wrote that fixed capital could be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines or tools, or other similar items that bring income or profit without passing from one owner to another or without further circulation.

The founder of Marxism and the author of the economic work "Capital" K. Marx, studying capital, characterized it as a process of movement. In the economic theory of K. Marx, fixed capital is a part of productive capital, which is wholly involved in the production process, but transfers its value to manufactured products in shares as they wear out, as a result of which a full turnover takes place over several production cycles. The fixed capital is embodied, according to K. Marx, in the means of labor.

P. Samuelson, a prominent representative of the school of neoclassical synthesis, considered fixed capital as consisting of those durable goods produced, which, in turn, are used as resources in further production. He called the fundamental property of fixed capital that it "is both a resource and a product at the same time." Moreover, this resource is subject to ownership, which "determines the ability of people or firms to own, buy, sell and use it" .

Existing approaches to the definition and concept of "fixed capital" are presented in Table. one.

Table 1

No. p/ P		Definition
	A. Smith (classical school) 1	Fixed capital is capital used to improve land, to buy useful machines or tools, or other similar items that generate income or profit without passing from one owner to another or without further circulation.
	K. Marx (Marxism) 2	Fixed capital is a part of productive capital that participates entirely in the production process and transfers its value to manufactured products in shares as it wears out.
	P. Samuelson (neoclassical synthesis) 3	Fixed capital - durable goods that are used as resources in further production, are both a resource and a product, it is subject to the right of ownership
	VC. Sklyarenko and V.M. Prudnikova	Fixed assets - a set of production, tangible assets that operate in the production process for a long period of time, retaining a natural-material form throughout the entire period and transferring their value to products in parts as they wear out in the form of depreciation charges
		Fixed assets are cash invested in existing fixed assets
		Fixed assets - means of labor (buildings, structures, machines and mechanisms, inventory, vehicles) for production and non-production purposes
	B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, .B. Starodubtsev	Fixed assets are a set of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (more than one year) both in the sphere of material production and in the non-production sphere.

The variety of interpretations of "fixed capital" follows from the variety of essential aspects of this economic category. In Western economic thought, there are several approaches to the definition of fixed capital as an economic category, but they all boil down to the idea that fixed capital is represented as the sum of capital invested in capital assets, which is involved in several production cycles, i.e. fixed capital is fully identified with fixed assets.

In Russian accounting practice, fixed assets are part of fixed capital, along with intangible assets, profitable investments in tangible assets and long-term financial investments. Therefore, the equivalence of these concepts and their interchangeability is impossible.

The concept of "fixed assets", in domestic practice, is used in economic literature and for the purposes of financial analysis, in accounting it is customary to use the term "fixed assets". However, some groups of economists (L.I. Ushvitsky, A.V. Mordovkin, A.Sh. Margulis) consider these concepts as synonyms and, when reflecting the concept of “fixed assets”, indicate in brackets “fixed assets”. According to the definition of V.K. Sklyarenko and V.M. cost of products in parts as they wear out in the form of depreciation charges 4 .

Others, such as A.D. Sheremet, L.M. Makarevich, A.M. Lithuanians hold a different opinion and delimit these categories. A similar definition is given in the financial and credit dictionary edited by V.F. Garbuzov, which states that fixed assets are cash invested in existing fixed assets. At the same time, fixed assets are understood as a set of material and material assets created by social labor (in value terms), serving for a long period and losing their value in parts 5 .

Recognizing the existence of different points of view available in the economic literature and summarizing the many views, it can be noted that in order to avoid terminological and semantic confusion, it is advisable to use the term "fixed assets", since it more clearly reveals the economic content of this object.

S. N. Shchadilova. believes that fixed assets are means of labor (buildings, structures, machines and mechanisms, inventory, vehicles, etc.) for production and non-production purposes 6 .

A distinctive feature of fixed assets is a long time of their use, gradual wear and tear and the transfer of their value to the cost of a newly created product (manufactured products, work performed and services). Therefore, B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, E.B. Starodubtsev supplement this definition by pointing out that fixed assets are a set of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (over one year) both in the sphere of material production and in the non-production sphere.

Thus, there are many points of view on the economic nature and essence of fixed assets. However, they all come down either to the definition of fixed assets as a set of material assets used in the activities of the organization for a long time, or to the understanding of fixed assets as money invested in fixed assets. However, the separation of the natural-material form from their value expression is not entirely correct.

As the most complete and reliable, one can cite the definition of S.I. Khoroshkov and V.I. Bukiya: fixed assets are a set of labor instruments in their material and cost terms, used in the process of manufacturing products, performing work, rendering services or for administrative and managerial purposes, having a useful life of more than one operating cycle and gradually transferring their value to newly created products in the form of depreciation charges.

Fixed assets include buildings, structures, working power machines and equipment, measuring instruments and devices, computers, vehicles and tools, household equipment, working and productive breeding stock, perennial plantations and other fixed assets. Their formation is carried out at the expense of fixed capital.

The correct definition of the essence of fixed assets plays an important role for their accounting. For the purposes of accounting in the Russian Federation, the concept of "fixed assets" is disclosed through a specific list of conditions that are met at a time, established by PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets", approved. By order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n. adopted as part of the program for the transition to international accounting standards. After the adoption of this PBU, the Russian accounting system was significantly closer to international standards, although there are still a number of differences between them.

In accordance with clause 4 of PBU 6/01, an asset is accepted by an organization for accounting as fixed assets if the following conditions are simultaneously met:

a) the object is intended for use in the production of products, in the performance of work or the provision of services, or for provision by the organization for a fee for temporary possession or for temporary use;

b) the object is intended to be used for a long time, i.e. a period of more than 12 months or a normal operating cycle if it exceeds 12 months;

c) the organization does not assume the subsequent resale of property;

d) the object is capable of bringing economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future.

For the purposes of tax accounting, when classifying property as fixed assets, it is necessary to be guided by the norms of Ch. 25 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. The tax legislation does not provide for the phrase “fixed assets”, the Tax Code of the Russian Federation operates with the concept of “depreciable property”. Requirements for the adoption of objects as fixed assets, enshrined in Art. 256 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, practically do not differ from the criteria established by accounting legislation, with the exception of the presence of a cost criterion for tax accounting purposes (depreciable property is property with an initial value of more than 40,000 rubles).

The concept, procedure for recognition, evaluation and accounting of fixed assets, in accordance with international standards, is governed by IAS 16 “Fixed Assets”. According to the definition of IFRS 16, fixed assets are objects used in the production and supply of goods, works, services, or for administrative purposes and which are expected to be used during more than one reporting period. Based on the definition, production and so-called corporate non-current assets, capital investments fall into the composition of fixed assets.

In addition, in the world practice of accounting there are other definitions of the category "fixed assets". Thus, according to GAAP (General Accepted Accounting Principles) of the United States, fixed assets are considered to be tangible assets that are acquired and held by an enterprise for the purpose of use in the production process and sale of products, to ensure the sale of goods, the provision of services, or for other business purposes other than resale.

Table 2.

table 2

Comparative characteristics of the definitions of the concept and methods of accounting for fixed assets in accordance with RAS 6/01, IAS 16 and US GAAP

	PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets"	IFRS(IAS) 16 "Fixed assets"	US GAAP	Comparative characteristics
Criteria for recognition of property, plant and equipment	- use in production, in the performance of work, the provision of services; – use of the object for a long period (over 12 months); - resale of the object is not expected; – the object is able to bring economic benefits in the future	- there is a high probability of obtaining future economic benefits from use; – the value of the asset can be measured reliably; - use for the production of goods and services; - it is supposed to use the object for more than one period	- are used in the process of production and sale of products, provision of services or other economic purposes; - have a service life of more than one year; - participate in the process of generating income indirectly	the criteria for recognition of fixed assets in RAS are close in essence to international ones, they lack only the criterion reliability of estimates
Initial cost	at original cost	at original cost	at original cost	borrowing costs are included in cost when applying the alternative approach under IAS 23. US GAAP classifies as borrowing costs only interest on loans that must be capitalized in accordance with the established procedure
Follow-up evaluation	- at initial cost - at revalued cost	- at initial cost - at revalued cost (revaluation at fair value)	- at initial cost	PBU 6/01 does not prescribe the measurement of impairment losses. U.S. GAAP does not allow valuation above original value.

Useful life (SPI)		useful life is determined by the organization itself	useful life is determined by the organization itself	In IFRS 16, the IFR is reviewed regularly during the life of the asset; according to RAS, the IFR is reviewed only during reconstruction or modernization
Depreciation	four ways - linear, - declining balance,	three methods are provided: - uniform accrual, - declining balance, - method of the sum of products	Four methods: - linear - double declining balance - by the sum of numbers of years of useful life, - in proportion to the volume of production	in IFRS 16, the method used is reviewed throughout the useful life; according to PBU 6/01, the depreciation method is applied throughout the life of the asset. Double declining balance depreciation in US GAAP is derived from the declining balance method in IFRS when a factor of two is applied
Amortized cost	difference between original and salvage value	initial cost	the difference between the original cost and the realizable value of the fixed asset	the procedure for determining depreciable cost does not match

Regulation of the concept of "fixed assets", the order of reflection in accounting, their movement and documentation is carried out in accordance with legislative and regulatory acts, which, depending on the legal force, can be divided into 4 levels of legal regulation: legislative, regulatory, methodological and organizational and distribution .

At the legislative level, the components are laws and other by-laws, namely:

• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "Civil Code of the Russian Federation Part 2" dated January 26, 1996, No. 14-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Part Two)" dated 05.08.00, No. 117-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Accounting" dated February 23, 1996 No. 129-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Financial Lease (Leasing)" dated October 29, 1998, No. 164-FZ.

The regulatory level includes:

• Regulation on accounting and financial reporting in the Russian Federation, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated July 27, 1998 No. 34n;
• Regulation on accounting "Accounting for fixed assets" PBU 6/01, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n;
• Chart of accounts for financial and economic activities of organizations and instructions for its use, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated October 31, 2000 No. 94n.

At the level of methodological regulation of accounting for fixed assets, the following documents are used:

• Guidelines for accounting of fixed assets, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of December 24, 2010 No. 186n;
• All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OKOF), approved. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994, No. 359;
• Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups" dated 01.01.2002 No. 1;
• Decree of the State Statistics Committee of Russia "On approval of unified forms of primary accounting documentation for accounting for fixed assets" dated 21.01.2003

In addition, depending on the industry in which a particular business entity operates, this list may be supplemented by intra-industry regulations (for example, when accounting for fixed assets in agriculture, the Guidelines for accounting for fixed assets in agricultural organizations are used, approved by Order of the Ministry of Agriculture RF dated 19.06.2002 No. 559, Methodological recommendations on accounting for production costs and calculation of the cost of products (works, services) in agriculture, approved by Order of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation dated 06.06.2003 No. 792).

At the organizational and distribution level, there are intra-company acts that regulate aspects of accounting for fixed assets that are not legally established (an example of such documents can be the Instruction on the procedure for writing off fixed assets that have become unusable for JSC Russian Railways, approved by order of JSC Russian Railways).

In international practice, in addition to IAS 16, when accounting for property, plant and equipment, other standards should be taken into account: IAS 17 Leases, IAS 23 Borrowing Costs, IAS 36 Impairment of Assets ".

According to IFRS rules, non-current assets that are real estate, the economic benefits of which will be received by renting out, and not by use in the main activity and not by sale, are investment property. Such immovable property is also accounted for separately in accordance with IAS 40 Investment Property. Thus, from an IFRS point of view, leased property is not property, plant and equipment and is not covered by IAS 16. The same applies to land whose purpose is not defined - they must qualify as investment property.

Fixed assets are a huge amount of labor instruments, which, despite their economic homogeneity, differ in their intended purpose and service life. The variety of types and elements of fixed assets of the enterprise determines the need for their preliminary classification in order to account for and ensure their effective management. To keep records of fixed assets, they are classified according to a number of criteria: by type, purpose, groups that take into account the specifics of production purposes, relations with sectors of the national economy, etc.

Possible types and groups of fixed assets, depending on the classification features, are presented in Table. 3.

Table 3

Existing classifications of fixed assets given by various authors in the economic literature

No. p/ P	Classification sign	Types of fixed assets
	Depending on the organization's rights to fixed assets	– own fixed assets
		– fixed assets in trust management
		- fixed assets for economic management
		– leased fixed assets
		– fixed assets received under a leasing agreement
	Role in the production process by group	Active	Passive
		- cars and equipment – vehicles - tools – stock and accessories – other fixed assets	- building – buildings - transmission devices

	Depending on the intended purpose and the functions performed in the process production	- production fixed assets (machines, tools, buildings of the main and auxiliary workshops and other fixed assets, use which are aimed at systematic obtaining profit as the main goal of activity organizations)
		- non-production fixed assets (objects health care, physical culture and sports, housing and communal and socio-cultural spheres)
	According to the degree of use in production and economic activities 12	- fixed assets in stock
		– fixed assets in operation
		- fixed assets for conservation
		- fixed assets under repair
		- fixed assets at the stage of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction, modernization and partial liquidation
	By sectors of the national economy	- industry
		- Agriculture
		– trade and public catering
		– housing and communal services, etc.
	By groups of fixed assets	- building
		– buildings
		– working and power machines and equipment
		- measuring and control instruments and devices
		- Computer Engineering
		– vehicles
		- tool
		- production and household equipment
		– working, productive and breeding cattle
		- perennial plantations
		- on-farm roads
		– capital investments for radical land improvement
		– land plots and objects of nature management

The division of fixed assets according to the degree of use is necessary to obtain information on the loading and efficiency of the use of fixed assets, the possibilities of replacing worn-out assets and the correct calculation of depreciation for inclusion in production costs.

The classification of fixed assets by groups is of great importance for enterprises, because the ratio of individual groups of fixed assets in their total volume represents the specific (production) structure of fixed assets. For management purposes, business entities are not indifferent to which of the groups of fixed assets are invested, because. they are interested in an optimal increase in the proportion of the active part of the funds that serve the decisive sectors of production.

Fixed assets in their totality form the production and technical base and determine the production capacity of the enterprise. Depending on the sphere, industry and the specifics of the business activities of the enterprise, the share of fixed assets necessary for the implementation of activities varies. The provision of fixed assets of commercial organizations of the Russian Federation by type of economic activity is presented in Table. 4 and in fig. one.

Table 4

Specific structure of fixed assets of commercial organizations
in the Russian Federation by type of economic activity as of December 31, 2010

Total fixed assets

of them:

building

structures

cars and equipment

vehicles

other types of fixed assets

million rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

agriculture and forestry

mining

manufacturing industries

production of electricity, gas

construction

wholesale and retail trade

hotels and restaurants

transport and communication

financial activities

real estate transactions

healthcare

provision of other communal and social

A large share of fixed assets in 2010 accounted for wholesale and retail trade (26%), transport and communications (24%) and mining (17%).

Fig.1. Provision with fixed assets of commercial organizations of the Russian Federation
as of December 31, 2010 by type of economic activity (according to Table 4)

According to the Federal State Statistics Service, the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at the book value at the end of 2010 amounted to 93,185.612 billion rubles. 17 . At the same time, the value of fixed assets increases every year. The dynamics of changes in the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation since 1999 is presented in Table. 5 and in fig. 2.

Table 5

Dynamics of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at full book value since 1998 to 2010 (based on the materials of the Federal State Statistics Service 17)

years	accounting price fixed assets at the end of the year billion rubles	Price index, %	Price fixed assets in comparable prices, billion rubles	VC previous year	AT % by 1998

Rice. 2. Dynamics of the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at book value in comparable prices for the period 1999-2010 (according to Table 5)

The cost of fixed assets, according to the state statistics authorities, in 2010 compared to 1998 increased 11 times.

Summarizing the above, it can be noted that the value of fixed assets is a significant part of the total value of national wealth and property of each specific organization in particular. Due to the long-term use of fixed assets in the activities of business entities, they have a significant impact on the financial performance of the organization. Depreciation deductions act as an internal source of financing for the organization's costs and contribute to a change in the structure of assets.

These factors determine the significance of the correct and reliable reflection in accounting and reporting of information on the cost, availability and movement of fixed assets.

In relation to fixed assets, there are still many unresolved problems, the main reason for which can be considered the lack of a unified terminology and definition of the concept of "fixed assets". An analysis of literary sources and a study of the definitions of various authors made it possible to conclude that in the general economic theory, scientists economists considered this category as fixed capital, for the purposes of economic analysis, the concept of “fixed assets” is used, in accounting the definition of the concept of “fixed assets” is given. All existing definitions are reduced to the definition of fixed assets as a set of material assets used in the activities of the organization for a long time, or to the understanding of fixed assets as money invested in fixed assets. However, in our opinion, the separation of the natural-material form from their value expression is not entirely correct.

Due to the existing differences between domestic accounting regulations and international standards, some problems also arise when reflecting fixed assets in accounting.

Firstly, PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets" does not provide for an alternative approach that involves the assessment of fixed assets at their fair value, so there is a problem in accounting for fixed assets - this is revaluation. At present, due to the continuous use of fixed assets and the rise in the price level, the cost of their reproduction is increasing. However, most organizations do not revaluate fixed assets and, although in conditions of inflation, the real value of fixed assets increases significantly, the change in the value of the reflection is not reflected in accounting and reporting.

Secondly, in international accounting, IAS 36 “Impairment of Assets” is applied. In the practice of Russian accounting, depreciation is not recognized, however, there is no prohibition on it. Therefore, organizations can use it, but they do not do it because of the fear that by depreciating the asset, they will break the generally accepted tradition and cause disapproval of the tax authorities.

Thirdly, at present, by analogy with international financial reporting standards, Russian legislation allows organizations to independently determine the useful life of fixed assets. Although such an important factor determining the useful life of an asset as obsolescence under IAS 16 is not taken into account in PBU 6/01, despite the fact that at present the acceleration of scientific and technological progress plays a decisive role in the development of the economy .

Fourth, in accordance with IFRS, the initial cost of fixed assets should be increased by the amount of the reserve for future expenses for the liquidation of the object. According to PBU 8/2010 "Estimated Liabilities, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets", the company's future liquidation expenses meet the criteria for estimated liabilities. PBU 6/01, in turn, provides for the possibility of including other costs directly related to the acquisition, construction and manufacture of fixed assets in the initial cost of objects. But it should be noted that in practice, nevertheless, reserves for the decommissioning and liquidation of fixed assets are recognized by organizations quite rarely.

In addition, at present, in the theory and practice of accounting, there is an imperfection of the regulatory and legislative framework, manifested in the ambiguity of wording, in the absence of instructions and recommendations for resolving complex and controversial issues, in an extremely rapid change in the composition and content of regulatory legal acts. Russian accounting for fixed assets, against the background of international standards, is less flexible, since it does not contribute to bringing accounting indicators to actual market values ​​and economic benefits of enterprises.

Sources:
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2. Capital: The quintessence of all volumes of "Capital" in one book [Text] / K. Marx; per. with him. S. Alekseeva; comp., foreword and adj. Y. Borchardt. Ed. 3rd, rev. Moscow: KomKniga, 2010, p. 174.
3. Economics [Text] / per. from English. Pelyavsky O.L. 18th ed. Samuelson P.E., Nordhaus V.D. M.: VIL-YAMS, 2008.
4. Economics of the enterprise (in diagrams, tables, calculations): textbook [Text] / ed. prof. VC. Sklyarenko, V.M. Prudnikov. M.: INFRA-M, 2010. S. 67.
5. Financial and credit dictionary. V.2 [Text], ed. A.F. Gorbuzov. M.: Finance and statistics, 2005. S. 385
6. Shchadilova S. N. Fundamentals of accounting. [Text] M.: Delo i Service, 2007. S. 32.
7. Modern Economic Dictionary [Text] under. ed. B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, E.B. Starodub-tsev. M.: INFRA, 2006. S. 112.
8. Khoroshkov S.I., Bukiya V.I. Problems of determining the economic essence of fixed assets in the light of the implementation of the state program of reforming accounting [Text] // Questions of modern science and practice. University. IN AND. Vernadsky. - 2008. - No. 1 (11). - S. 236.
9. Regulation on accounting "Accounting for fixed assets" PBU 6/01 [Electronic resource]: approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
10. Krupina N.N., Bartkova N.N. Accounting for depreciation of fixed assets: Russian and international standards [Electronic resource] // International Accounting - 2010 - No. 16. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
11. Peteneva E.N. The choice of accounting system by the company [Electronic resource] // International Accounting - 2007 - No. 12. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
12. Accounting: a textbook for the Training and Certification Program for Professional Accountants. Basic course [Text] / pod.gen. ed. V.V. Patrov. M.: BINFA Publishing House, 2008. S. 24.
13. Enterprise economics: textbook [Text] / ed. prof. ON THE. Safronov. M.: "Jurist", 2008. S. 52.
14. Ionova A.F. , Selezneva N.N. Financial analysis: textbook. [Text]. M.: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2008. S. 213.
15. Belova E.L. Accounting for fixed assets in commercial organizations [Text] // Modern accounting. - 2006. - No. 6. - P. 72.
16. All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OKOF) [Electronic resource]: approved. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994, No. 359. Access and reference legal system "ConsultantPlus"
17. Official website of the Federal State Statistics Service URL: www.gks.ru

Fixed assets have always been an important component of property. Their economic nature and role in the industrial and non-industrial sectors have always been the subject of debate among scientists and specialists in

areas of accounting and economics. The correct definition of the essence of fixed assets plays an important role for their accounting. Main

a large number of scientific works are devoted to the means. However, in understanding their economic nature among accountants and economists, up to

there is still no unity of views.

There are many approaches to the definition of fixed assets, the most common of them are:

According to I.V. Antsiferova: Fixed assets are part of the assets used in the production of products, in the performance of work or the provision of services, or for the needs of managing an organization for a long time.

So, S.N. Shchadilova, L. Kurakov believe that fixed assets are means of labor (buildings, structures, machines and mechanisms, inventory, vehicles, etc.) for production and non-production purposes.

M. Meskon supplements this definition by pointing out that the fixed assets are the means of labor involved in the production process for a long time and gradually transferring their value to the enterprise's products.

Another group of economists, such as A. Azrilyan, B. Roizberg, L. Lozovsky, E. Starodubtseva interpret the concept of fixed assets as a set of material values ​​used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (more than one year) both in the sphere of material production and in the non-production sphere.

Thus, the characteristics of fixed assets are determined by the purpose and use of the relevant types of tangible property.

According to PBU 6/01 “Accounting for Fixed Assets”, property is recognized by an organization as an item of fixed assets if the following conditions are met: objects are used for a long time (more than 12 months) in the production of products, in the performance of work, the provision of services or in the management of the organization; the facilities are capable of generating future economic benefits and are not expected to be resold during their foreseeable useful lives.

Failure to fulfill at least one of the above conditions does not give grounds to recognize material objects as fixed assets.

So, in tax accounting there are the following concepts of fixed assets:

Fixed assets are understood as a part of property used as means of labor for the production and sale of goods (performance of work, provision of services) or for the management of an organization with an initial value of more than 40,000 rubles. (Clause 1, Article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation). In both accounting and tax accounting, the definition assumes that fixed assets are not acquired in order to immediately sell them. The purpose of the purchase of fixed assets is to obtain economic benefits. The difference in definition lies in the period of use. Accounting clearly defines that fixed assets cannot have a useful life of less than 12 months. Tax accounting makes it possible to attribute property with a shorter period to fixed assets, however, such fixed assets in accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 256 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation are excluded from the composition of depreciable property and profits are not recognized for tax purposes.

The accounting unit of fixed assets is an inventory object, which is the primary unit of analytical accounting of fixed assets on account 01 "Fixed assets", and also account 02 "Depreciation" is a unit for depreciation and accounting for accumulated depreciation charges. In this regard, in accounting for fixed assets, the concept of an inventory object as a unit of accounting is very important in its meaning.

The classification of fixed assets is important for organizing their accounting, since inventory items of fixed assets are subject to accounting primarily at the places of their use and operation - in workshops, industries, departments, etc. organization capital.

The defining principle of the classification of fixed assets is the principle of unity, which makes it possible to ensure the uniformity of the grouping of fixed assets in accounting and reporting by all organizations, regardless of their industry affiliation and organizational and legal form.

In the practice of accounting in our country, such a classifier is the All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets (hereinafter referred to as OKOF), approved by the Decree of the State Standard of Russia dated December 26, 1994 No. 359, (as amended on April 14, 1998).

In accordance with this classifier, fixed assets are divided into tangible and intangible. According to OKOF, tangible fixed assets (fixed assets) include: buildings, structures, machinery and equipment, measuring and control instruments and devices, dwellings, computers and office equipment, vehicles, tools, production and household equipment, working, productive and breeding livestock, perennial plantings and other types of fixed assets. Intangible fixed assets (intangible assets) include: computer software, databases, original works of entertainment genre, literature or art, high-tech industrial technologies, other intangible fixed assets that are objects of intellectual property, the use of which is limited by the rights of ownership established on them.

The following classification of fixed assets is also distinguished, which is presented in Scheme 1.1

Scheme 1.1 Classification of fixed assets

According to the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994 N359 (as amended on April 14, 1998) “On the classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups”, a classification of fixed assets is established - by age composition. In accordance with this document, all fixed assets are classified into 10 depreciation groups, each of which has its own useful life. Such a grouping of fixed assets made it possible to combine dissimilar objects into depreciation groups with a single period of use.

A special role in the composition of fixed assets is played by the well stock, which, as you know, are the main part of the means of production in oil and gas production. The following technological structure of the well stock is distinguished:

− Pressure;

− Operational;

− Search engines;

− Being in conservation;

− Liquidated and awaiting liquidation;

− Liquidated.

In addition, fixed assets are divided into movable and immovable. Movable fixed assets - machinery and equipment, appliances, tools, inventory, vehicles, working and productive livestock. Immovable fixed assets - land and natural objects, buildings and structures, perennial plantings. Under civil law, vehicles such as sea and river vessels, airplanes and other aircraft, space objects are classified as real estate, although they are movable objects according to their technical characteristics.

From the above, we can conclude that the classification of fixed assets is very diverse and the same fixed asset can fall under different classification groups.

1.2. Comparative characteristics of Russian and international accounting standards for fixed assets

PBU 6/01, in comparison with its predecessor, although it brought the domestic practice of accounting for these assets closer to the international one in a number of parameters, it still has many flaws and unjustified deviations from the approaches laid down in IFRS, and in particular in IFRS 16 “Basic funds". Let us consider and analyze the most significant differences and similarities between the requirements of IFRS 16 “Fixed Assets” (hereinafter referred to as IFRS 16) and RAS 6/01 “Accounting for Fixed Assets” (hereinafter referred to as PBU 6/01).

In RAS 6/01, as in many others, unlike IFRS, there is, in particular, no “Definitions” section containing the disclosure of basic terms. Its absence is highly undesirable, since in the economic literature of different authors published recently by various publishing houses, one can often find unequal interpretations of the content of even basic terms (book value of fixed assets, their liquidation value, depreciation loss of the latter, etc.). The introduction of the recommended section in PBU would contribute not only to an unambiguous understanding of the norms laid down in them by accountants, but also to streamline the conceptual apparatus used in accounting. At the same time, the approach is very doubtful when in our PBU the term, which is also used in international financial reporting standards (IFRS), refers to phenomena that are far from being equivalent to them. This applies, for example, even to the concept of "fixed assets". IAS 16 states that: “Property, plant and equipment are tangible assets with a useful life of more than one period, held for the production and supply of goods and services, for renting or for management purposes.”

In contrast, PBU 6/01 does not define fixed assets as an economic category, but contains an indication that when assets are accepted for accounting as fixed assets, the following conditions must be met at a time:

a) use in the manufacture of products, in the performance of work or the provision of services, or for the management needs of the organization;

b) use for a long time, that is, a useful life of more than 12 months or a normal operating cycle if it exceeds 12 months;

c) the organization does not expect the subsequent resale of these assets;

d) the ability to bring economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future.

A significant difference between the Russian standard and the international one is that IFRS 16 does not define the unit of measurement that should be used when recognizing fixed assets, that is, what exactly applies to fixed assets, while PBU 6/01 has the following cost recognition criteria fixed assets:

Assets for which the conditions are met with a value within the limit established in the accounting policy of the organization, but not more than 40,000 rubles per unit, may be reflected in accounting and financial statements as part of inventories.

The difference between IFRS 16 and RAS 6/01 is that fixed assets related to agricultural activities are accounted for in RAS 6/01, while according to IFRS, biological assets associated with agricultural activities are reported according to the principles set out in IFRS 41 "Agriculture".

IAS 16 also does not apply to mineral rights, exploration and production of minerals, oil, natural gas and similar non-renewable resources.

The classification of fixed assets in IFRS 16 is somewhat different from the usual Russian one and includes the following groups: land; building; production equipment; court; aircraft; vehicles; furniture and other accessories; office equipment.

Recognition of property, plant and equipment:

IFRS 16 introduces two criteria for recognizing an item of property, plant and equipment as an asset:

1) it is highly probable that the economic benefits associated with the asset will be received;

2) the initial cost of an asset accepted for accounting can be reliably estimated.

The given recognition criteria are absent in PBU 6/01. According to IFRS 16, for the recognition of an asset as a fixed asset, it is not enough that the object satisfies the characteristics of a fixed asset, it is also necessary that both criteria for its recognition are met.

Valuation of fixed assets:

The requirements of PBU 6/01 regarding the initial measurement and recognition of property, plant and equipment are similar to the requirements of IFRS 16, except for the following:

1) Not included in the actual costs, costs associated with the acquisition, construction or manufacture of fixed assets, general business and other similar expenses;

2) In contrast to accounting under IFRS, objects of external improvement and similar objects (for example, housing stock and road facilities), according to RAS, as a rule, are accounted for as part of the organization's fixed assets, even if they do not bring benefits to the organization itself.

3) The initial cost of fixed assets received under contracts providing for the fulfillment of obligations (payment) in non-monetary assets is the cost of valuables transferred or to be transferred by an organization, which is established based on the price at which, in comparable circumstances, an organization usually determines the cost of similar valuables. And under IFRS, an item of property, plant and equipment acquired as a result of an exchange transaction must be measured at fair value, unless such an exchange transaction is not, in substance, a commercial transaction and neither the fair value of the asset given up and received cannot be measured reliably.

PBU 6/01 establishes that depreciation for an item of fixed assets must be charged based on its original (replacement) cost. In IFRS, there is the concept of a depreciable amount (cost). It is defined as the difference between the original price of an asset and its salvage value. The latter is the residual value of the asset at the end of its useful life.

In PBU 6/01 there is a clause according to which “depreciation charges on an item of fixed assets are charged from the first day of the month following the month of acceptance of this item for accounting, and is made until the cost of this item is fully paid off or this item is written off from the accounting accounting". And depreciation is stopped "from the first day of the month following the month of the full repayment of the cost of this object, or the write-off of this object from accounting." IFRS 16 does not contain these requirements, but there is a general setting - it should be accrued “throughout the useful life” of the object.

There are four depreciation charges according to PBU 6/01: linear, declining balance, depreciation by the sum of the numbers of years of the useful life and in proportion to the volume of products or work (production).

IFRS 16 does not restrict entities in choosing a depreciation method. The standard only gives examples of common depreciation methods: linear, declining balance and production. In practice, the write-off method is also used by the sum of the numbers of years of the useful life and combined - they combine two or more simple methods.

Thus, we can conclude that the adoption of PBU 6/01 has significantly brought the accounting of fixed assets in Russia closer to the requirements of IFRS 16, but has also retained a number of significant differences from international standards. Thus, today it is still impossible to assert full compliance with Russian and international standards regarding the accounting of fixed assets. Many of these differences are natural, as they are caused by the objective features of the Russian economy and the impossibility of one-time adaptation of domestic accounting to foreign standards.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

Higher professional education

"Siberian State Automobile and Road Academy"

Department of Real Estate and Construction Business

Course work

in the discipline "Estimation of the cost of machines, equipment

and vehicles"

Performed by student gr. EUNz-06-06:

Ivanova Maria Mikhailovna

Accepted Art. Lecturer at the Department of National Security and Safety

Tishkov Evgeny Vladimirovich

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..3

1. Basic concepts and definitions…………………………………………… 5

2. Main approaches and methods for estimating the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles……………………………………………………..7

2.1. Cost approach to estimating the cost of machinery, equipment, vehicles…………………………………………………………………….7

2.2. Comparative approach to estimating the cost of machines, equipment, vehicles……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2.3. Income approach to valuation of machinery, equipment, vehicles……………………………………………………….………..10

3. Analysis of the Toyota Ist car market for 2012………. …………………..eleven

4. Determining the market value of the car…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..13

4.1. Description of the object of assessment…………………………………………………..13

4.2. Determination of market value using……………………12

4.3. Coordination of results…………………………………………………. eighteen

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….20

List of used literature……………………………………………..21

Introduction.

Currently, appraisal activity is actively developing - one of the most important institutions of the modern market economy and the rule of law. It is necessary for the formation of normal economic and legal relations in society, as well as for ensuring a legitimate and civilized economic turnover of objects of property rights. In the motor transport complex of Russia, the main type of assets of which are motor vehicles, the need for their valuation is constantly increasing due to the steady increase in the level of motorization in the country.

The purpose of the course work is to determine the market value of the vehicle.

The object is a Toyota Ist vehicle, state number: A777AA, year of issue: December 2005

Tasks for solving the set goal:

Research the car market for the second half of 2012

To study approaches to the assessment of machines, equipment;

To achieve the most accurate assessment of machinery and equipment, it is necessary to use three main approaches: cost, income and comparative. These approaches are considered in this work on a specific example. Compare the estimates obtained on the basis of these approaches and reduce the resulting cost estimates to a single value of the object of assessment.

This course work is aimed at developing skills and abilities to determine the value of the vehicle.

8. 1. Basic concepts and definitions.

Movable property - things not legally related to real estate, including money and securities.

Car -- a technical device that performs mechanical movements to convert energy, materials and information.

Equipment - technical means necessary for the implementation and provision of technology.

Technology - in a broad sense - a set of methods, processes and materials used in any branch of activity, as well as a scientific description of the methods of technical production; in the narrow sense - a set of organizational measures, operations and techniques aimed at the manufacture, maintenance, repair and / or operation of a product with nominal quality and optimal costs, and due to the current level of development of science, technology and society as a whole.

Vehicle - a device designed or used for the transportation (transportation) of people or goods.

Price - the monetary value of the goods, the amount of money that the buyer pays, and the seller receives for the goods sold.

Market price - the most probable price at which this object can be alienated on the open market in a competitive environment, when the parties to the transaction act reasonably, having the necessary information, and any extraordinary circumstances are not reflected in the transaction price.

cost of reproduction - the amount of costs in market prices that exist and on the date of the assessment, to create an object identical to the object of assessment, using identical materials and technologies, taking into account! depreciation of the object of assessment. The full cost of reproduction can be determined either at the prices valid at the time of valuation "for an identical object. For machines, equipment and vehicles, an object of the same model, modification and performance as the object being valued is considered identical. Or this cost is determined by one of the cost approach methods The depreciation depreciation is then subtracted from the calculated total cost to obtain the residual value.

Replacement cost - the amount of costs for the creation of an object similar to the object of assessment, in market prices existing on the date of the assessment, taking into account the depreciation of the object of assessment. It can be seen from the definition that the replacement cost of an item is obtained when its estimate is made by comparison with similar items for which prices are known. Typically, replacement cost is first calculated as total, i.e. excluding impairment due to depreciation, comparison with new similar items, and then as a residual, i.e. deduction from the received full value of the impairment due to depreciation.

replacement cost - the amount of costs that an enterprise owning fixed assets would have to bear if it completely replaced this object with a similar object at market prices and tariffs existing at the revaluation date, including the costs of acquiring (construction, manufacturing), transportation and installation of the object . It should be noted that the replacement cost does not take into account the depreciation of the object.

Investment cost - the value of the object of assessment, determined on the basis of its profitability for a particular person for given investment purposes. The investment value is determined in relation to a specific investment project. The same object may have a different investment value for different projects. This will depend on the effectiveness of projects, their degree of risk and the required return on the part of the investor.

Initial cost - the sum of the actual costs of the enterprise for the acquisition, construction and manufacture of the facility as of the date of its registration. When revaluing fixed assets, the initial cost is replaced by the replacement (full replacement) cost.

Cost price - the set of expenses for production and sale of products, expressed in monetary terms.

Physical deterioration - loss of value of an object as a result of deterioration of its original properties over time and during operation.

functional wear - loss of the value of the object as a result of insufficient capacity, excessive operating costs, production imbalance, etc.

Economic depreciation - it is the loss of value as a result of the impact of: macroeconomic factors.

9. 2. Basic approaches and methods for estimating the cost of machines, equipment, vehicles.

10. 2.1. Cost approach to estimating the cost of machines, equipment, vehicles.

The cost approach is a method of property valuation based on determining the cost of the costs of creating, modifying and disposing of property, taking into account all types of wear and tear. The cost approach implements the principle of substitution, which is expressed in the fact that the buyer will not pay more for the finished object than for the created object of the same utility.

The cost approach is most successfully used in the evaluation of converted, exclusive, rare motor vehicles (AMTS) and their components. In addition, the cost approach is successfully used to adjust the cost of objects that have minor damage (defects) or have additional equipment, or in the absence of some elements of the basic configuration (incompleteness).

The cost of appraisal objects is determined by the cost approach using the following methods:

per-aggregate (element-by-element) calculation;

price indexing;

calculation at the price of a homogeneous object.

Aggregate (element-by-element) calculation is used in those cases when the object being evaluated can be assembled from constituent elements.

The essence of determining the cost of AMTS, their components using price indexation is to bring the cost of objects to the current price level using corrective indices.

The calculation of the cost at the price of a homogeneous object is carried out by selecting a similar object for the evaluated object, similar in design, materials used and manufacturing technology.

1. 2.2. Comparative approach to estimating the cost of machines, equipment, vehicles.

Comparative an approach- a set of methods for assessing the value of the appraisal object (object), based on a comparison of the appraisal object with similar objects, in respect of which there is information about the prices of transactions with them.

The comparative approach is most preferable in comparison with other approaches when determining the market value of ATEs and their components, including emergency, non-repairable, large-scale and mass production, which, as a rule, have a developed market, which allows the appraiser to choose a sufficient quantity according to statistical criteria. analogues. The comparative approach is most effective when using statistical methods in the collection and processing of cost information.

When determining the market value of an appraisal object, the following information is usually used:

prices of purchase and sale transactions;

prices from periodicals and price lists;

prices from reference and analytical publications.

The information obtained is processed using various statistical methods (correlation, dispersion, regression analyses, etc.) in order to determine the statistical dependencies between the price of the object of assessment and the parameters that affect the price.

The most preferable information, from the point of view of reliability, are the prices of purchase and sale transactions. However, such information is inaccessible, therefore, prices of reference and analytical publications, periodicals, price lists, properly adjusted using appropriate methods, are mainly used.

The following types of corrections are used:

for technical comparability;

differences in terms of sale;

for temporal comparability;

for the difference in configuration.

Corrections for technical comparability. To determine the amount of the amendment, the ratios between prices and parameters of the object of assessment are used.

size (engine power, load capacity, etc.);

• technical condition;

Making adjustments for differences in terms of sale means bringing the prices of all analogues found to the same commercial terms of sale. There are the following types of amendments:

for bargaining;

- for delivery times;

- on payment terms (advance payments, cash payment, installment payment, credit, mixed payment).

1

Within the framework of this article, an analysis of the existing interpretations of the essence of the concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed capital", which are reflected in modern publications of specialists in various fields of the economy, legislative and regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, is carried out, a comparative description of the concepts is carried out and objective reasons for their confusion in modern economic practice. The author also considers relevant and practical approaches to the classification of material fixed assets: by industry, by purpose in the production process, by the method of impact on objects of labor, grouping in accordance with PBU 6 "Accounting for fixed assets", by the degree of use in the production process , by the presence of rights to objects, classification into movable and immovable property.

fixed assets

fixed assets

main capital

1. Microeconomics. Practical approach (Managerial Economics): textbook / A.G. Gryaznova, A.Yu. Yudanov and others - M.: KnoRus, 2017. - 682 p.

2. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994 No. 359 “On the adoption of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OK 013-94)”.

3. Order of Rosstandart dated December 12, 2014 No. 2018-st “On the adoption and implementation of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008)”.

4. Taylor L.D. Capital, Accumulation and Money: an Integration of Capital, Growth, and Monetary Theory / Lester D. Taylor. – 2nd edn. - Springer, 2013. - 278 p.

5. Vitokhina O.A., Slabinsky D.V. The concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed capital" and "fixed assets" in Russia and abroad / O.A. Vitokhina, D.V. Slabinsky // Bulletin of the Belgorod University of Consumer Cooperatives, 2005, No. 5. - P. 79–84.

6. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n “On Approval of the Regulation on Accounting “Accounting for Fixed Assets” PBU 6/01”.

7. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated October 13, 2003 No. 91n “On Approval of Methodological Guidelines for Accounting of Fixed Assets”.

8. IFRS (IAS) 16 “Fixed Assets” (came into force in the Russian Federation by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 28, 2015 No. 217n).

9. Application of IFRS: in 3 hours (translated from English) / Ernst & Young (EY). - 7th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Alpina Publishers, 2017. – 3220 p.

10. Shokhin E.I. Corporate finance: textbook / ed. Shokhina E.I. – M.: KnoRus, 2016. – 318 p.

11. Savitskaya G.V. Comprehensive analysis of the economic activity of the enterprise: Textbook / G.V. Savitskaya. – 6th ed., revised. and additional – M.: NITs Infra-M, 2013. – 607 p.

12. Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) dated November 30, 1994 No. 51-FZ.

At the same time, the concept of "fixed assets" is used in such areas as accounting and tax accounting, and the term "fixed assets" - in statistics, economic theory and economic analysis.

The concept of "fixed assets" in the English professional terminological space does not have a clear distinction with the term "fixed assets", because when determining the unit of accounting for fixed assets in the Russian accounting system, the property approach is used, while in foreign accounting practice the financial approach is used.

The cornerstone of the modern economy is the cycle of expanded reproduction of competitive goods and services, which, according to the postulates of economic theory, is a closed system of four transformational links - the stages of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The basis of such a system is the production process, which in turn is determined by various factors, among which an important role is played by the means of labor, which are part of such concepts as "land" and "capital" used by the modern economic school. The relationship between the categories of "means of labor", "land" and "capital" is shown in fig. one.

The means of labor, according to K. Marx, are a thing (a complex of things) placed by a person between themselves and the object of labor and serving as a conductor of its influence on this object.

There is a point of view that, in contrast to the objects of labor and labor as such, which require renewal in each production cycle, the means of labor are characterized by repeated use in the production process of products (performance of work, provision of services) in an unchanged natural-material form. According to the author, this interpretation cannot be considered correct due to the fact that in the original source (K. Marx "Capital. Critique of Political Economy. Volume III" (1894)) there is no direct indication of the life of the asset, and therefore, the means of labor can be included in the property of an economic entity with a turnover of less than one operating cycle - elements attributable to the material component of working capital. In other words, the authors of this definition unreasonably identify the means of labor with one of the forms of their existence - the main funds of the organization, the analysis of the essence of which is part of the object of this study.

In economic practice, the term "fixed assets" is often confused with such concepts as "fixed assets" and "fixed capital", which de facto carry a different semantic load. For the purposes of this study, fixed capital should be understood as a financial category that reflects a part of the company's funds invested in its fixed assets on an ongoing basis and for a long time - a part of the company's property used in its activities for several reproduction cycles. This type of capital is reflected in the liabilities of the balance sheet of an economic entity and is formed through two types of sources:

Sources allocated for the acquisition and creation of fixed assets of newly formed organizations;

Sources of simple and expanded reproduction of fixed assets of functioning organizations (see Appendix 1).

A similar approach to the interpretation of the concept of "fixed assets" underlies the construction of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-94 and its new version, put into effect on January 1, 2017 - OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008), according to the provisions of which fixed assets are produced assets that are repeatedly or permanently used for the production of goods, the provision of market and non-market services for an extended period of time exceeding twelve calendar months. Within the framework of this definition, there is no clear indication of the tangible form of an asset, which gives reason to classify fixed assets into tangible and intangible
(see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Classification of fixed assets in OKOF

The identification of the terms "fixed assets" and "fixed capital" is primarily due to the difference in approaches to the essential interpretation of the category "capital" (see Table 1).

Table 1

Approaches to the essential interpretation of the category "capital"

	Essence
Economic	Based on the physical concept of capital. Capital is divided into: real (embodied in material goods) and financial (embodied in cash, cash equivalents and financial instruments)
Accounting (implemented at the micro level)	Based on the financial concept of capital, which states that capital is net assets, the value of which is equal to the difference between the sum of the organization's assets and the value of its liabilities
Mixed	Modification of physical and financial concepts Capital is considered simultaneously from two positions: directions of investment (does not exist as an independent ephemeral substance, but takes on a physical form); sources of formation. Relevant types of capital: active - the production capacity of the organization, presented in the asset of the balance sheet as the main and reverse parts (from the position of accounting, in order to avoid confusion, the term "funds" is used instead of the term "asset"); passive - own and borrowed long-term sources of financing

Source: .

The concept of "fixed capital" should be considered from the standpoint of a mixed approach. Based on this, according to the author, in the process of circulation, the fixed capital splits, simultaneously appearing both in the form of active (real) capital and in the passive form, formed as a result of the distribution of the value of fixed assets through depreciation.

The forms of manifestation of fixed capital in its material active part are:

Functioning main production and non-production assets;

Objects of construction in progress - buildings, structures and other types of construction and installation works that have not been completed;

Uninstalled equipment for installation and commissioning;

Fixed assets accepted for operation, but mothballed and being modernized (reconstructed);

Fixed assets in mortgage transactions, etc. .

Fixed assets, in turn, represent the value expression of the organization's tangible fixed assets and an integral element of non-current assets reflected in its balance sheet. Thus, the concept of “fixed assets” used in Russian accounting practice should be interpreted as material carriers of fixed assets and considered as a synonym for the term “tangible fixed assets” (see Fig. 3).

One of the prerequisites for the confusion of the above categories is the attempts of Russian specialists in various fields of economics to adapt English terms in the framework of translating publications of scientific works of foreign colleagues, accounting standards and titles of articles in the financial statements of foreign companies. In the course of the study, an analytical review of Russian and English sources was carried out, offering definitions of the analogues of the triad "fixed assets" - "fixed assets" - "fixed capital" most frequently used in foreign economic literature, as a result of which the author came to the conclusion that unreasonable confusion of these concepts is a common phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in foreign accounting practice, arising due to the difference in approaches to determining the accounting unit of fixed assets (see Table 2).

The author proposes the analogs most appropriate to the economic content of the analyzed terms: material fixed assets (fixed assets) - fixed (tangible) assets, capital assets (capital goods); fixed capital - fixed capital.

As part of the raised problem of adapting foreign professional vocabulary to Russian accounting terminology, it should be noted that in the official translation of IAS (IAS) 16, from the author’s point of view, an incorrect replacement of the original category “property, plant and equipment” (real estate, machinery and equipment ), which most accurately characterizes the scope of the standard, the generalized concept of "fixed assets" (for more details, see Fig. 4).

Rice. 3. Differentiation between the categories "tangible fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed capital"

table 2

Accounting unit of property, plant and equipment

Accounting system	The name of the unit of account and the content of the concept
(clause 6 PBU 6/01, 10 of the Guidelines) property approach	Inventory object - a separate structurally isolated object of property intended to perform certain functions, or a complex of structurally articulated objects (several objects of the same or different functional purposes, having common control, common accessories and devices, capable of performing their functions only as part of a complex), intended for performing certain work
IAS 16 financial approach	Component - the amount of costs that can bring economic benefits to the organization in the future and are taken into account immediately as fixed assets, regardless of the stage of readiness of the object, which can be depreciated separately. The economic entity chooses the accounting unit independently

Sources: .

Rice. 4. Scope of RAS for accounting for property, plant and equipment and IAS 16

On the basis of the approach formed by the author to the definition of the above triad of concepts, it seems expedient to classify material fixed assets. Thus, their grouping by industry (industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) has a purely statistical focus, making it possible to generate data on their value within a single type of economic activity.

By purpose, the material fixed assets of organizations in the real sector of the economy are divided into production and non-production (see Fig. 5) .

Rice. 5. Material fixed assets for their intended purpose in the production process

According to the method of influencing the objects of labor, it is customary to distinguish between the active and passive parts of the material fixed production assets. The first category includes those funds that are directly involved in the production process and include such varieties as machines, machine tools, production lines, other equipment, computers and production tools. The role of the passive ones is to create and maintain the conditions for the implementation of the production process (these include, for example, buildings and structures for industrial purposes, transmission devices (water pipelines, gas pipelines, etc.) and land). Such detailing is necessary to identify reserves for increasing the efficiency of using fixed assets by optimizing their structure.

The classification of fixed assets by type is disclosed in paragraph 5 of PBU 6/01 “Accounting for fixed assets” and paragraph 3 of the Guidelines for accounting for fixed assets and completely duplicates the composition of tangible fixed assets presented in OKOF OK 013-94. At the same time, in order to characterize the state of working machines and equipment, fixtures and tools, in practice they are grouped according to their technical suitability: an object suitable for operation; unusable and subject to write-off; in need of a major overhaul.

Based on the provisions of Art. 130, 132 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, tangible fixed assets can be classified into movable and immovable property (see Fig. 6) .

According to the degree of use in the production process, material fixed assets are divided into those located:

Directly in operation;

In stock (reserve) - items of fixed assets acquired in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation to ensure the uninterrupted and safe functioning of production, intended to replace failed fixed assets (for example, the safety stock of generating equipment in the electric power industry, used to maintain uninterrupted operation of the power system in conditions of unforeseen peak loads);

In stage:

Completion (construction of new, inseparable from the object of fixed assets parts without causing damage to it);

Additional equipment (addition of an object of fixed assets with previously missing elements (parts, mechanisms, units), leading to the appearance of new properties and qualities in it (clause 2, article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));

Rice. 6. Division of material fixed assets into movable and immovable property

Reconstruction (reconstruction of fixed assets in connection with the improvement of the production process to expand capacity, increase the quantity and quality of products (clause 2, article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));

Modernization (improvement of the object, leading to a change in its technical and economic indicators: purpose, scope, workload);

Partial liquidation (termination of recognition of an integral part (or several parts) of an object);

On conservation (the operation of which has been terminated for a certain period with the possibility of its renewal).

Another classification feature is the availability of rights to fixed assets, on the basis of which they are usually classified into:

Owned by an economic entity (including those leased) (Article 209 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);

Being in economic jurisdiction (for state or municipal unitary enterprises (Article 294 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation)) or operational management (for institutions and state-owned enterprises (Article 296 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation));

Leased items of property, plant and equipment, i.e. in temporary possession and use or in temporary use, incl. received under a financial lease (leasing) agreement (Chapter 34 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The correct classification of fixed assets is the key not only to the organization’s error-free filling out of the federal statistical observation form No. 11 “Information on the availability and movement of fixed assets (funds) and other non-financial assets” and obtaining reliable results of analyzing the effectiveness of their use, but also a factor influencing the outcome tax disputes regarding the payment of income tax. In addition, the correct classification of objects determines the characteristic features of their accounting - the recognition process, the valuation methodology, the procedure for reflecting in financial statements and other accounting aspects, the range of which is regulated by a number of regulatory legal acts in force on the territory of the Russian Federation.

Attachment 1

Sources of formation of the fixed capital of the organization

As you know, any relation means the connection of at least two subjects. That is why the legal literature discusses the question of who is the other, opposing the heirs, the subject of the inheritance relationship. Often such a subject is called the testator. This appears to be a fairly obvious mistake. Indeed, the heirs receive the rights and obligations of the testator. His death gives rise to a hereditary legal relationship. But the subject of law is a person with legal capacity. The legal capacity of a citizen is terminated by death (clause 2, article 17 of the Civil Code). Therefore, it cannot be a participant in any legal relationship whatsoever. Therefore, a hereditary, legal relationship arises, that with the disappearance of the subject, legal uncertainty arises and it is necessary to resolve the issue of the ownership of the property of the deceased.

The hereditary relationship is absolute, it defines only the person - the heir. He can accept the inheritance, refuse it, not accept the inheritance. All third parties (“everyone and everyone”) are obligated. Their duty is not to interfere with the heir in the exercise of his right.

The composition of the inheritance (the object of the inheritance legal relationship) is determined according to the rules established by Art. 1112 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

The rights and obligations included in the inheritance mass are not included in the content of the inheritance legal relationship. When the heir accepts the inheritance, the inheritance legal relationship is terminated; the heir becomes a participant in those legal ties in which the testator was.

The right to inherit, consisting of the three specified powers (to accept an inheritance, to refuse it, not to accept it), belongs to each of the heirs. This right is inalienable. Obviously, this right can be considered inextricably linked with the individual. There is only one exception under Art. 1156 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, - transfer of the right of inheritance by inheritance (hereditary transmission).

Inheritance legal relationship is characterized by all common features of civil legal relations: 1) legal equality of subjects; 2) dispositivity; 3) initiative of subjects.

The equality of subjects is manifested in the fact that no one can influence the will of the heir so that he accepts the inheritance or refuses it. The acceptance of an inheritance by one heir does not obligate the other heirs to anything.

Dispositiveness lies in the assumption of freedom of choice of behavior. The heir can choose whether to accept the inheritance or not. However, there are also legal restrictions. Yes, Art. 1158 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation provides for cases when the renunciation of an inheritance in favor of a certain person is impossible.

Usually, the initiative of the subjects of civil law is manifested in the fact that the first step in the development of civil legal relations is taken by the subjects themselves. In this regard, the originality of the inheritance legal relationship should be noted: the subjects of this relationship can take the initiative after the occurrence of a certain event - the death of the testator.

Like any other legal relationship, the hereditary relationship in its development goes through two mandatory stages - the emergence and termination, in addition, sometimes there is an intermediate stage - a change.

An inheritance legal relationship is generated by the death of a citizen or by declaring him dead.

The prerequisites for a hereditary legal relationship are facts - states: kinship, marital relations, dependent status, relations between the adopter and the adopted.

A change in the inheritance relationship can occur along the lines of subjects and content.

However, although a will is currently quite common, more often after the death of a citizen there is no will. The explanation for this is also the fact that a person was going to live and live (why then a will?), And the fact that there is often nothing special to bequeath. The notorious mentality also affects. In such cases, the law (the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) prescribes to whom the property of the deceased passes. First of all - to children, the spouse and parents of the testator. If they are not there, then to full-blooded and not full-blooded brothers and sisters of the testator, grandfather and grandmother, etc. (Article 1 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In such situations, the lack of a citizen's disposal of his property in case of death is compensated by the instructions of the law.

In addition, sometimes even if there is a will, the law “corrects” it (the will).

When a citizen dies, his property remains (things, rights, obligations), but there is no subject, no one who owns these things and rights, one who bears to third parties. This property is waiting for heirs. That is why they say that with the death of a citizen, an inheritance opens.

Declaring a citizen dead is required in cases where he is absent for a long time and it is not known where he is. But after all, there is property (things) that belongs to him, before someone he carries, from someone he has the right to demand something. Thus, there is legal uncertainty. In order to eliminate it, the citizen is declared dead in order for the inheritance to open and, ultimately, the indicated property, relatively speaking abandoned (or “fallen”), has acquired a subject (heir).

The rules on declaring a citizen dead are contained in Art. 45 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

Declaring a citizen dead does not mean that he really died. This is just a presumption. If he is absent for a long time, and there is no information, then he may have died. But a citizen may be alive. According to the general rule, the preserved property is returned to him, which was transferred to anyone free of charge after the citizen was declared dead (Article 46 of the Civil Code).

The time of death of a citizen is confirmed by a death certificate issued by an authority authorized to carry out state registration of acts of civil status.

A death certificate on the territory of the Russian Federation is issued by the civil registry office (hereinafter referred to as the registry office) or by the local self-government body of the municipality, on the territory of which there is no registry office. In the event of the death of a citizen of the Russian Federation outside the Russian Federation - by a consular institution.

The study of the issue of the formation and development of inheritance law in Russia is necessary for the further development of the science of civil law on the issues under consideration.

According to the court, in concluding that the testator bequeathed to his daughter only half of the apartment, and not the entire apartment, the lower court rightfully proceeded from the literal interpretation of the will, according to which the testator bequeathed specific property in the form of a share in the apartment that belonged to him at the time making a will. Consequently, since the testator became the owner of the entire apartment much later, there were no grounds to believe that he bequeathed the entire apartment, since the will did not contain an indication that the testator bequeathed to his daughter property that could be acquired by him in the future , with which Art. 1120 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation was not subject to application.

So, in one of the cases, the court established that Ch.S. filed a lawsuit against Ch.Z., S.Z., S.E. to invalidate the closed will of Ch.M., drawn up in *** year, adopted *** year by the notary of the Vladikavkaz notarial district of Alania ***, drawn up in favor of S. E., S. Z. and C. Z.

*** year Ch. M., *** year of birth, drew up and signed a closed will, which was *** accepted by a notary of the Vladikavkaz notarial district - Alania ***. In accordance with the content of the will, Ch. M. bequeathed all his property (an apartment at *** and cash deposits) to his sister, Ch. Z., and the daughters of his nephew, S. E., S. Z.

In view of M. A.’s illness, at his personal request and in the presence of a notary, the will was signed by M. Yu. filed a lawsuit to invalidate the will, arguing that at the time of its preparation the testator was in a sick state and did not give an account of his actions. By the decision of the Tagansky District Court of Moscow dated January 1, 2001, which entered into force, the claim was denied. In the present case, M.Yu. disputed the will, arguing that the procedure for its preparation was violated: an outsider was present at the signing, the will was not read to the testator. The court concluded that the norms of the law in the preparation of the will were not violated. However, the panel of judges, disagreeing with the conclusions of the court, considered that the circumstances of the case, which the court recognized as established, do not follow from the evidence examined by the court. In the decision, the court referred to the message of the notary. Meanwhile, this document entered the court after the decision was made, which follows from the stamp of the court on the date of its receipt, the case materials do not contain other information about the receipt of the document before the decision was made. The trial record of this evidence is not reflected.

However, in violation of Art. 12 of the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, the court did not create conditions and did not give the plaintiff the opportunity to prove his allegations, since he refused to interrogate A.A., the testator's assailant. The conclusion about the impossibility of interrogation or the absence of the need for this by the court is not properly motivated, the court did not take sufficient measures to call the witness.

From the case under consideration it follows that the court, according to the rules established by Art. 12, 57, 67 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, did not investigate the circumstances that the plaintiff indicated as grounds for invalidity.

It seems to us that the court should have clarified the grounds for invalidity. The plaintiff referred to the presence of an outsider during the preparation of the will and to the fact that the will had not been read to the testator. It was necessary to find out how the presence of an outsider affected the validity of the will. If the presence caused a violation of the principle of secrecy, then another method of protection applies to such cases - compensation for moral damage at the suit of the testator. Violation of the principle of secrecy is possible only during the life of the testator. In our case, the dispute arose after the death of the testator. If the presence caused a violation of the good will of the testator, then this circumstance had to be proved.

By a decision of the Judicial Collegium dated 01.01.01, the decision of the Meshchansky District Court of Moscow dated 01.01.01, decided on the claim of D.L. against K.A., on the recognition of the will as invalid on the grounds of Art. 177 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Reversing the decision of the court, the panel of judges indicated the following. The court conducted a post-mortem forensic psychiatric examination, according to which D.A. suffered from an organic disorder in the form of toxic (alcoholic) encephalopathy during the period of making the will. Having come to the conclusion that D.A.

The court did not investigate this issue, did not find out whether the plaintiff is an interested person and whether he has the right to challenge this transaction.

In this case, the court did not take into account that the current legislation does not give everyone the right to challenge a will in court.

As follows from the case, the will was challenged on the grounds provided for by Art. 177 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

The defendant filed a motion to appoint a re-examination in the case, but the court rejected this motion, without specifying the reasons for which it considers it not to be satisfied.

The will was disputed due to the inability of the testator at the time of its preparation to understand the significance of his actions. However, the court did not examine this issue.

By the decision of the Judicial Board of September 21, 2010, the decision was cancelled. Reversing the decision of the court, the panel of judges indicated the following. In support of the claim, it is indicated that the will was signed not by T.E., but by an unknown person. A forensic handwriting examination was carried out in the case. According to the expert's conclusion, the authentication record on the will "T.E." performed, probably not by T. E. himself, but by another person. Resolving the dispute, the court concluded that the testator did not sign the will, since the expert commission did not confirm the authenticity of his signature, the notary's archive was not deposited, the defendants did not provide reliable evidence that the will was signed by the testator. The panel of judges did not agree with this conclusion of the court. Considering that the presented will contains the signature and seal of a notary, the signature on behalf of T.E., the burden of proving the fact of execution by another person and the invalidity of the will lay with the plaintiff. Therefore, the lack of evidence of this argument on the part of the defendants could not be the basis for satisfaction of the claim. By virtue of Art. 67, 86 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, none of the evidence has a higher power for the court, the expert opinion was subject to evaluation according to the rules of Art. 67 G PC RF. The opinion cited by the court does not contain answers to the questions posed by the court, the expert's conclusion is of a conjectural nature and cannot be used as the basis for the decision. According to Art. 67 of the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, the court evaluates the evidence in their totality, objectively, comprehensively. In violation of this requirement of the law, the court did not indicate on the basis of what set of evidence it was concluded that T.E. did not sign the contested will. The court also committed violations of the rules of procedural law in the appointment and conduct of the examination. Comparative samples for the study were obtained by the expert in a non-procedural way. There is no information in the case file that the court allowed the expert's request to provide additional documents, that the documents used by the expert as comparative samples were sent to the expert institution by the court, and before that they were presented to the parties and examined by the court as evidence in the case. Thus, the parties were deprived of the right to participate in the discussion of the issue of providing materials to the expert. From the expert's conclusion it follows that he did not use the originals, but electrographic copies of documents with the signatures of the testator. The court did not discuss the issue of the possibility of conducting a study on electrographic copies before its appointment and did not ask the relevant questions to the expert after receiving the opinion. In making its decision, the court violated the requirements of Art. CPC RF, in the operative part, there is no conclusion on the results of the consideration of the claim by T. O. In the reasoning part, the court indicated that this claim is subject to satisfaction. T. O. is the heir to T. E. according to the law of the second stage, it does not follow from the materials of the inheritance case that she accepted the inheritance. Meanwhile, the court did not indicate by what right she could challenge the will, and concluded that her claim was to be satisfied. The court made a division of the inheritance between T.S. and T.E., however, none of them made such a demand.

In this case, the court also did not examine the circumstances named by the plaintiff as grounds for invalidity.

Summons were sent to other participants in the process, witnesses.

From the certificate of the chairman of the collegium dated 01.01.01 (case sheet 183), lawyer K.V., who concluded an agreement with B.Yu. to represent his interests in court, from April 7 to April 9, 2010 was on vacation outside Moscow region.

The above circumstances indicate that B.Yu. was improperly notified of the time and place of the trial and thus was deprived of the opportunity to present evidence in support of his arguments, which led to a violation of his right to defense under Art. 3 G PC RF.

The court did not verify the plaintiff's arguments that the testator M. G. visited the Council of Veterans during her lifetime on April 22 and April 29, 2009.

These circumstances indicate that the court, in violation of Art. 12 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation did not create the necessary conditions for a comprehensive and complete study of all the circumstances in the case.

Legal significance for the case in this case are circumstances related to the reasons for the non-signing of the will by the testator in his own hand. These reasons must be specified in the will and examined by the court.

K. filed a lawsuit against Sh. to invalidate the will and recognize the right of ownership of the inherited property, substantiating her claims by the fact that on November 14, 2007 her mother died; after the death of her mother, she became aware that the defendant Sh. (her own sister) entered into inheritance rights on the basis of a will dated 01.01.01. She believed that her mother did not sign the said will, the signature on the presented will was forged. In this case, a handwriting examination was carried out, appointed by the court on January 21, 2009. The plaintiff's arguments were checked by the court in full and were not confirmed. By a court decision of July 8, 2009, K.'s claim against Sh. to invalidate the will and recognize the right to own property was denied. The court in this case carefully checked the grounds for invalidity, named by the plaintiff, and did not find grounds for satisfying the claim.

From all of the above, we can conclude that the jurisprudence on the issue under consideration is ambiguous. Further analysis of judicial practice is needed.