2.2 The concepts of fixed assets of the enterprise in the interpretation of various authors

Danilan A.A. considers that the fixed assets of an enterprise are means of labor that gradually wear out during use and therefore serve for a long time, participate in several production cycles in an unchanged natural form. They do not include those means of labor that, according to the current instructions, are classified as low-value and wearing items.

Bakaev A.S. writes that the composition of fixed assets reflects various material and material values ​​used as means of labor in kind for a long time both in the sphere of material production and in the non-productive sphere. Fixed assets include: buildings, structures, working and power machines and equipment, measuring and control instruments and devices, computers, vehicles, tools, production and household equipment and supplies, working, productive and breeding livestock, perennial plantations, on-farm roads and other related items.

Fixed assets also include: capital investments for radical improvement of land (drainage, irrigation and other reclamation works); capital investments in leased fixed assets; land plots, nature management objects (water, subsoil and other natural resources).

Kiryanov Z.V. gives the concept of fixed assets (funds). Fixed assets (funds) are labor instruments that repeatedly participate in the production process without changing their natural form, perform the same function over several production cycles and transfer their value to the created product in parts. The consumption of fixed assets occurs in the process of their gradual wear and tear.

He also subdivides fixed assets (funds) into production and non-production. Industrial fixed assets for agricultural purposes include industrial agricultural buildings, structures, transmission devices, agricultural machinery and equipment, working and productive livestock, capital expenditures for land improvement.

Production fixed assets for non-agricultural purposes include buildings, structures, non-transmitting devices, machinery and equipment for the construction of industrial and production facilities, trade and public catering.

Non-productive fixed assets include buildings, structures and equipment for housing, communal services and consumer services for the population, organizations of education, culture and art, health care, physical education and social security.

Larionov A.D. gives the concept of initial, residual and replacement cost of fixed assets. In accounting, the fixed assets of an enterprise are reflected at their original cost, that is, at the actual costs of their acquisition, construction, and manufacture. Changes in the initial cost of fixed assets are allowed only in cases of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction and partial liquidation. The residual value of fixed assets can be judged by the initial cost, based on the amount of depreciation accrued.

Under the replacement cost understand the cost of reproduction of objects in modern conditions. In accounting, this assessment is not reflected (except for objects subjected to revaluation), but it is important when drawing up an estimate of the costs of reproduction, overhaul.

Glushkov I.E. distinguishes between the following types of valuation of fixed assets: initial cost - full, that is, without deduction of depreciation, and residual, that is, minus depreciation; the replacement cost, respectively, is also full and residual. The initial cost is determined by the amount of funds actually spent on the acquisition, construction, including installation of equipment included in the construction estimate. Recovery is an assessment of fixed assets at modern prices, at the cost of reproduction at a given time. It allows you to compare the means of labor received at different times, to obtain accurate data on their size.

Volkov N.G. writes that the initial cost of an item of fixed assets depends on the nature of its acquisition or receipt and is formed in a different assessment:

· when purchasing an object, it is determined by the actual costs of its acquisition, including the funds paid to the seller, organizations for the implementation of work under a construction contract or other contracts; special organizations for information services; remuneration of the intermediary organization through which the object of fixed assets was acquired;

· registration fees, duties and other similar payments made in connection with the assignment of rights to the object;

customs duties and other payments;

non-refundable taxes paid in connection with the acquisition of objects;

other costs directly related to the acquisition of objects.

Upon receipt of an object as a contribution to the authorized capital, the initial cost of the fixed asset object is determined in the amount agreed by the founders of the organization.

The regulation establishes that the organization can change the initial cost of fixed assets in the event of work on completion, reconstruction, as well as in the event of their partial liquidation.

Talitskaya T.V. writes that the revaluation of fixed assets can be carried out in one of two ways - using indices of changes in the value of fixed assets developed by the State Statistics Committee of Russia, or by direct valuation of the value of fixed assets using documented market prices, and the company can evaluate itself or invite experts - appraisers .

As you know, the federal authorities prefer the method of direct assessment, since it is the most accurate, and allows you to correct inaccuracies that have accumulated as a result of the use of average group indices in the course of previous assessments. A direct appraisal must be documented or supported by expert opinions from independent appraisers. The degree of responsibility of the appraiser to the customer is largely determined by the contract concluded between them.

Pizengolts M.Z. writes that in the process of production activity of fixed assets of agriculture, they, while retaining their original material form, gradually wear out. To replace depreciated fixed assets, enterprises must accumulate the necessary funds, that is, the amount of depreciation of fixed assets must be constantly reimbursed from the proceeds. This is ensured by accruing depreciation included in the cost of production.

Many organizations actively use fixed assets in their business activities. For such organizations, it is extremely important to choose the right method of depreciation, as this is directly related to the problem of timely write-off of a worn out or obsolete fixed asset. All fixed assets of the organization are divided into homogeneous groups of objects, united by common technological or other characteristics. When breaking down, one should be guided by the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets.

According to the volume and nature of the repair work, there are current, medium and major repairs of fixed assets.

According to Babaev Yu.A. Current repairs are considered to be repairs carried out with a frequency of less than one year. Its main purpose is to keep the facility in working order. With an average repair, a partial disassembly of the repaired unit and the restoration or replacement of part of the parts are performed. A major overhaul of equipment and vehicles is a type of repair in which a complete disassembly of the unit, repair of basic and body parts and assemblies with new and more modern ones, assembly, adjustment and testing of the unit is carried out. Capital repairs of buildings and structures - repairs in which worn-out structures are replaced or replaced with more durable and economical ones that improve the operational capabilities of the repaired facilities.

The average repair carried out with a frequency of more than one year is reflected in the accounting as a major one, and with a frequency of more than once a year as a current one.

Some economists (Kondrakov N.P., Glushkov I.E.) subdivide repairs into only two types - current and capital.

Baryshnikov N.P. writes about the costs of repairing fixed assets that, in accordance with the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products included in the cost of products, depending on the accounting policy adopted by the organization, the costs of repairing fixed assets for production purposes may be included in production costs (circulation ) in one of the following ways:

by including actual costs in production costs;

By creating a repair fund (reserve);

· by assigning the actual costs of repairing fixed assets to the expense of future periods with subsequent even write-off.

The first method is used for small repairs and uniform costs during the reporting period.

The second method involves the formation of a repair fund (reserve), which is created monthly with the transfer of funds to account 96 "Reserves for future expenses" subaccount "Repair Fund". Then the actual costs of repairing fixed assets are written off against the created reserve.

The third method involves the allocation of actually incurred costs to deferred expenses. In this case, the costs incurred for the repair of fixed assets are collected on the account "Deferred expenses" sub-account "Repair Fund", which are further evenly written off to production costs or sales costs.

Kondrakov N.P. notes that it is advisable to use the third cost accounting option in those organizations of seasonal industries where the bulk of the costs of repairing fixed assets fall in the first months of the year, when the repair fund has not yet been created.

Kondrakov N.P. also notes that repairs of fixed assets can be carried out in an economic way, that is, by the organization itself, or by a contract method (by outside organizations).

Evaluation of work in an economic way is determined by the actual costs of auxiliary production (repair shops, repair shops), the cost of spare parts and other materials consumed during repairs, the cost of wages and social insurance contributions for workers involved in repairs.

The cost of contract work is determined by the amount of invoices issued by contractors and other organizations for payment for the work performed. In turn, the price for such services is determined by agreement of the parties, including on the basis of accepted building codes and prices.

Repair of fixed assets is recommended to be carried out in accordance with the plan, in monetary terms, based on the system of preventive maintenance developed by the organization, taking into account the technical characteristics of fixed assets, their operating conditions and other reasons. Scheduled repairs include work on the systematic and timely protection of fixed assets from premature wear and tear and maintaining them in working order. Scheduled preventive maintenance extends the life of fixed assets and reduces equipment downtime. Unscheduled repairs are associated with unforeseen circumstances: an accident, sudden stops of mechanisms, etc. .

Every science has its own subject. The subject of economic analysis is understood as the economic processes of enterprises, their socio-economic efficiency and the final financial results of their activities, which are formed under the influence of objective and subjective factors, which are reflected through the system of economic information.

The subject of economic analysis determines the tasks facing it. Among the main author Grishchenko O.V. highlights:

· increasing the scientific and economic validity of business plans, business processes and standards in the process of their development;

· an objective and comprehensive study of the implementation of business plans, business processes and compliance with regulations;

Determining the effectiveness of the use of labor and material resources;

control over the implementation of the requirements of commercial calculation;

Identification and measurement of internal reserves at all stages of the production process;

Checking the optimality of management decisions.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are:

· determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activity of organizations;

Establishing the subordination of indicators with the allocation of aggregate productive factors and factors (primary and secondary) that affect them;

Identification of the form of the relationship between factors;

choice of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

Quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis.

Fixed assets (often referred to in the economic literature and in practice as fixed assets) are one of the most important factors of production.

The analysis of fixed assets is carried out in several directions, the development of which in combination allows us to assess the structure, dynamics and efficiency of the use of fixed assets and long-term investments.

The main directions of the analysis of fixed assets:

· Analysis of the structure and dynamics of fixed assets;

· Analysis of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets;

· Cost-effectiveness analysis for the maintenance and operation of equipment;

· Analysis of the effectiveness of investments in fixed assets.

HELL. Sheremet notes that the structure, dynamics and return on assets of fixed assets are factors that affect the level of profitability and financial condition of the organization. It is not indifferent for the organization how much own funds are invested in fixed assets. In modern conditions, the organization's flexibility in relation to the use of labor resources is increasing, the role of credit in the formation of fixed assets is increasing. Fixed assets and long-term investments in fixed assets have a multifaceted and versatile impact on the financial performance of the enterprise. Determining for the choice of analytical tasks are the specific needs of management, the content of management decisions.

2.3 Assessment of the composition, movement and condition of fixed assets

Fixed assets wear out during operation.

According to the current legislation, the fixed assets of an enterprise do not include:

items that serve less than one year, regardless of their value;

· fishing gear: trawls, nets, nets, nets and others, regardless of their cost and service life;

Replaceable equipment: attachments to fixed assets that are reusable in production and other devices caused by specific conditions for manufacturing products - molds and accessories to them, rolling rolls, air molds, shuttles, catalysts and other similar equipment, regardless of their cost;

special clothing, special footwear, as well as bedding, regardless of their cost and service life;

items intended for rental, regardless of their value;

· perennial plantings grown in nurseries as planting material.

Distinguish between physical and moral depreciation.

Physical deterioration is expressed in a negative change in the mechanical, physical, chemical and other properties of fixed assets in the form of wear, dilapidation, obsolescence and leads to a loss of consumer qualities and, ultimately, to a deterioration in economic performance.

The amount of physical wear is determined through the coefficient of physical wear:

Or, if it is difficult to determine the performance of a fixed asset (building, structure), then according to the formula:

where, F, N - actual and standard values ​​of indicators;

V, P, T - respectively, the total volume of manufactured products, productivity and service life.

According to the wear coefficient, the absolute (in rubles) loss of value is calculated:

(23)

where, S P - the initial book value of the fixed asset.

Obsolescence, also called economic, is expressed in the loss of the value of existing fixed assets before the expiration of the physical aging period due to the appearance of the same, but the most progressive, i.e. cheaper and more productive fixed assets.

There are two forms of obsolescence.

Obsolescence of the first type leads to a decrease in cost due to the reduction in the cost of their reproduction in modern conditions. The relative value of the moral first type K IM1, and its absolute value is determined by the formulas:

(24)

(25)

where, S P and S B - the initial and replacement cost of fixed assets of the enterprise.

Obsolescence of the second type is caused by the appearance of new, more productive and economic machines. The use of an old machine may not be effective, and it is written off before the date of physical obsolescence. This wear is calculated by the formulas:

(26)

(27)

where, ST and NOV - old and new fixed assets, respectively;

P and T - performance and service life of the machine;

S P - the initial cost of the fixed asset.

Obsolescence losses can be reduced by upgrading or reconstructing aging fixed assets, as well as by their accelerated depreciation.

Data on the availability, depreciation and movement of fixed assets are the main source of information for assessing the production potential of the enterprise.

The assessment of the movement of fixed assets is carried out on the basis of coefficients that are analyzed in dynamics over a number of years. To assess the movement and condition of fixed assets, the following relative indicators are calculated:

1. Factor of renewal of fixed assets (K update):

K update = (28)

2. Term for renewal of fixed assets (T update):

T update = (29)

3. The coefficient of disposal of fixed assets (K in):

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In the conditions of market relations, such issues relating to fixed assets as the technical level, quality, and reliability of products come to the fore, which entirely depends on the qualitative state of technology and its effective use. The improvement of the technical qualities of the means of labor and the equipping of workers with them provide the bulk of the increase in the efficiency of the production process. Thus, the analysis of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets is of particular relevance and great practical importance.

A more complete use of fixed assets leads to a decrease in the need to commission new production capacities when the volume of production changes, and, consequently, to a better use of the enterprise's profits.

Improving the use of fixed assets also means accelerating their turnover, which to a large extent contributes to solving the problem of reducing the gap in terms of physical and obsolescence, accelerating the pace of renewal of fixed assets.

Finally, the effective evaluation and management of fixed assets is closely related to improving the quality of products, because in the conditions of market competition, high-quality products are sold faster and are in demand.

Thus, fixed assets -- the most important factor in any production. Their condition and effective use directly affect the final results of the organization's economic activity. The rational use of fixed assets and production capacities of the organization contributes to the improvement of technical and economic indicators of production, including an increase in output, a decrease in its cost and labor intensity of manufacture.

Determination of the economic content of the concept of "Fixed assets" is an important step in the analysis, because allows you to form an objective value of the specified indicator, therefore, it is correct to identify the amount of depreciation in the cost of products, works, services, which affects the financial result. After analyzing foreign and domestic scientific literature, several definitions can be distinguished, they are presented in detail in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 - Approaches to determining the essence of the concepts "Fixed assets"

	Definition
	Assets having physical a form intended for use in the entity's operations for a period of more than 12 months that does not involve disposal of assets within 12 months of the date of acquisition and the cost of the assets can be measured reliably
	Assets intended for use in the production of products, in the performance of work or in the provision of services for a long time, i.e. a term lasting more than 12 months or a normal operating cycle, if it exceeds 12 months, is not intended for the subsequent resale of this object and is capable of bringing economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future
	Property, plant and equipment are tangible items that are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for own use, and are expected to be used for more than one year.
Economic Encyclopedia. Political economy / N.S. Strazheva, 2009	A set of means of production that serve more than one production cycle and gradually transfer their value to the product being created.
100 terms of market economy / Yu.F. Gurkin 2008	The totality of the means of labor, functioning in the sphere of material production and transfers its value to the newly created product in parts
Dictionary of modern economic and legal terms / V.N. Shelenov, 2010	The totality of the means of labor functioning in the sphere of material production in an unchanged natural form for a long time
Dictionary-reference book on economics / V.L. Kurakov, 2008	Means of labor for production and non-production purposes, participating in the production process for many cycles while maintaining their basic properties and original shape
Economic theory / E.S. Hendriksen, 2007	Tangible assets used by an enterprise for the production or supply of goods or services, for rent
Economics of the enterprise: textbook. allowance. 2nd ed. / THEM. Babuk, 2006	The totality of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time
Analysis of the economic activity of the enterprise: Proc. allowance / G.V. Savitskaya, 2002	Part of the production assets of the enterprise, the property of the enterprise, which is materially embodied in the means of labor
Economics of the enterprise: textbook. allowance / M.K. Zhudko, 2009	Means of labor that create the necessary conditions for a normal production process
Economics of the enterprise: educational complex / L.A. Loban, V.T. Pyko, 2010	The totality of means of labor, as well as material objects, creating conditions for their functioning
Comprehensive analysis of economic activity / A.D. Sheremet, 2008	The totality of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (over 1 year)
Microeconomics / S.P. Sergeev, 2005	Means of labor, the value of which is more than a certain limit
Microeconomics / S.P. Sergeev, 2006	A set of tangible objects that are often involved in the production process
Microeconomics (compendium + cheat sheet) / E.S. Lebedeva, 2010	Instruments of labor, with the help of which a person influences the object of labor in the production process

To compare and analyze the approaches given in the information table 1.1 to the essence of the concept of fixed assets, we will compile an analytical table 1.2.

Table 1.2 - Analysis of the essence of the concepts "Fixed assets"

Source		material objects	The totality of the means of production	The totality of means of labor	The totality of material assets
Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of March 30, 2001 N 26n
N.S. Strazheva
Yu.F. Gurkin
V.N. Shelenov
V.L. Kurakov
E.S. Hendrixen
THEM. babuk
G.V. Savitskaya
M.K. Zhudko
L.A. Loban, V.T. Pyko
HELL. Sheremet
S.P. Sergeev
S.P. Sergeev
E.S. Lebedev

Thus, based on the analysis, it was revealed that most authors define fixed assets as a set of labor instruments. This opinion is shared by such authors as Yu.F. Gurkin, V.N. Shelenov, V.L. Kurakov, G.V. Savitskaya, M.K. Zhudko, L.A. Loban, V.T. Pyko, S.P. Sergeev, E.S. Lebedev.

Consideration of fixed assets as assets of the organization, having a material form and participating in the production process, is also very common. This approach is observed in the Decree of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Belarus, as well as the Russian Federation, by the author E.S. Hendrickson.

In our opinion, the most complete definition of fixed assets is presented in the Decree of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Belarus, according to which fixed assets- these are physical assets intended for use in the activities of the organization for a period of more than 12 months, not involving the disposal of assets within 12 months from the date of acquisition and the initial cost of assets can be reliably determined.

Konovalova N.V., Trifonova E.N. Published in the collection:
"Actual problems of science, economics and education of the XXI century" - 2012 (Part 2)

Other articles on this topic:

Annotation:

An essential condition for the implementation of economic activity is the provision of the organization, along with material, labor, financial resources, the necessary fixed assets - buildings, structures, equipment, vehicles and other means. Fixed assets have a direct impact on the efficiency, quality of work and the results of all financial and economic activities of the enterprise. The economic and legal support of accounting for fixed assets in the Russian Federation is relevant at the present stage.

The economic nature and role of fixed assets in the production and non-production sectors have always been the subject of debate among scientists and specialists in the field of economics and accounting. A lot of scientific works are devoted to the interpretation of this category, but the unity of views on the issue of determining the economic essence of fixed assets among accountants and economists has not yet been achieved.

Along with the concept of fixed assets, economists use the concepts of fixed assets and fixed capital.

The study of the history of economic doctrines has shown that the category of "fixed capital" is the ancestor of these concepts. The concept of "fixed capital" was introduced into economic theory by the Scottish economist, the founder of the classical school of political economy, Adam Smith. He wrote that fixed capital could be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines or tools, or other similar items that bring income or profit without passing from one owner to another or without further circulation.

The founder of Marxism and the author of the economic work "Capital" K. Marx, studying capital, characterized it as a process of movement. In the economic theory of K. Marx, fixed capital is a part of productive capital, which is wholly involved in the production process, but transfers its value to manufactured products in shares as they wear out, as a result of which a full turnover takes place over several production cycles. The fixed capital is embodied, according to K. Marx, in the means of labor.

P. Samuelson, a prominent representative of the school of neoclassical synthesis, considered fixed capital as consisting of those durable goods produced, which, in turn, are used as resources in further production. He called the fundamental property of fixed capital that it "is both a resource and a product at the same time." Moreover, this resource is subject to ownership, which "determines the ability of people or firms to own, buy, sell and use it" .

Existing approaches to the definition and concept of "fixed capital" are presented in Table. one.

Table 1

No. p/ P		Definition
	A. Smith (classical school) 1	Fixed capital is capital used to improve land, to buy useful machines or tools, or other similar items that generate income or profit without passing from one owner to another or without further circulation.
	K. Marx (Marxism) 2	Fixed capital is a part of productive capital that participates entirely in the production process and transfers its value to manufactured products in shares as it wears out.
	P. Samuelson (neoclassical synthesis) 3	Fixed capital - durable goods that are used as resources in further production, are both a resource and a product, it is subject to the right of ownership
	VC. Sklyarenko and V.M. Prudnikova	Fixed assets - a set of production, tangible assets that operate in the production process for a long period of time, retaining a natural-material form throughout the entire period and transferring their value to products in parts as they wear out in the form of depreciation charges
		Fixed assets are cash invested in existing fixed assets
		Fixed assets - means of labor (buildings, structures, machines and mechanisms, inventory, vehicles) for production and non-production purposes
	B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, .B. Starodubtsev	Fixed assets are a set of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (more than one year) both in the sphere of material production and in the non-production sphere.

The variety of interpretations of "fixed capital" follows from the variety of essential aspects of this economic category. In Western economic thought, there are several approaches to the definition of fixed capital as an economic category, but they all boil down to the idea that fixed capital is represented as the sum of capital invested in capital assets, which is involved in several production cycles, i.e. fixed capital is fully identified with fixed assets.

In Russian accounting practice, fixed assets are part of fixed capital, along with intangible assets, profitable investments in tangible assets and long-term financial investments. Therefore, the equivalence of these concepts and their interchangeability is impossible.

The concept of "fixed assets", in domestic practice, is used in economic literature and for the purposes of financial analysis, in accounting it is customary to use the term "fixed assets". However, some groups of economists (L.I. Ushvitsky, A.V. Mordovkin, A.Sh. Margulis) consider these concepts as synonyms and, when reflecting the concept of “fixed assets”, indicate in brackets “fixed assets”. According to the definition of V.K. Sklyarenko and V.M. cost of products in parts as they wear out in the form of depreciation charges 4 .

Others, such as A.D. Sheremet, L.M. Makarevich, A.M. Lithuanians hold a different opinion and delimit these categories. A similar definition is given in the financial and credit dictionary edited by V.F. Garbuzov, which states that fixed assets are cash invested in existing fixed assets. At the same time, fixed assets are understood as a set of material and material assets created by social labor (in value terms), serving for a long period and losing their value in parts 5 .

Recognizing the existence of different points of view available in the economic literature and summarizing the many views, it can be noted that in order to avoid terminological and semantic confusion, it is advisable to use the term "fixed assets", since it more clearly reveals the economic content of this object.

S. N. Shchadilova. believes that fixed assets are means of labor (buildings, structures, machines and mechanisms, inventory, vehicles, etc.) for production and non-production purposes 6 .

A distinctive feature of fixed assets is a long time of their use, gradual wear and tear and the transfer of their value to the cost of a newly created product (manufactured products, work performed and services). Therefore, B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, E.B. Starodubtsev supplement this definition by pointing out that fixed assets are a set of material assets used as means of labor and acting in kind for a long time (over one year) both in the sphere of material production and in the non-production sphere.

Thus, there are many points of view on the economic nature and essence of fixed assets. However, they all come down either to the definition of fixed assets as a set of material assets used in the activities of the organization for a long time, or to the understanding of fixed assets as money invested in fixed assets. However, the separation of the natural-material form from their value expression is not entirely correct.

As the most complete and reliable, one can cite the definition of S.I. Khoroshkov and V.I. Bukiya: fixed assets are a set of labor instruments in their material and cost terms, used in the process of manufacturing products, performing work, rendering services or for administrative and managerial purposes, having a useful life of more than one operating cycle and gradually transferring their value to newly created products in the form of depreciation charges.

Fixed assets include buildings, structures, working power machines and equipment, measuring instruments and devices, computers, vehicles and tools, household equipment, working and productive breeding stock, perennial plantations and other fixed assets. Their formation is carried out at the expense of fixed capital.

The correct definition of the essence of fixed assets plays an important role for their accounting. For the purposes of accounting in the Russian Federation, the concept of "fixed assets" is disclosed through a specific list of conditions that are met at a time, established by PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets", approved. By order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n. adopted as part of the program for the transition to international accounting standards. After the adoption of this PBU, the Russian accounting system was significantly closer to international standards, although there are still a number of differences between them.

In accordance with clause 4 of PBU 6/01, an asset is accepted by an organization for accounting as fixed assets if the following conditions are simultaneously met:

a) the object is intended for use in the production of products, in the performance of work or the provision of services, or for provision by the organization for a fee for temporary possession or for temporary use;

b) the object is intended to be used for a long time, i.e. a period of more than 12 months or a normal operating cycle if it exceeds 12 months;

c) the organization does not assume the subsequent resale of property;

d) the object is capable of bringing economic benefits (income) to the organization in the future.

For the purposes of tax accounting, when classifying property as fixed assets, it is necessary to be guided by the norms of Ch. 25 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. The tax legislation does not provide for the phrase “fixed assets”, the Tax Code of the Russian Federation operates with the concept of “depreciable property”. Requirements for the adoption of objects as fixed assets, enshrined in Art. 256 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, practically do not differ from the criteria established by accounting legislation, with the exception of the presence of a cost criterion for tax accounting purposes (depreciable property is property with an initial value of more than 40,000 rubles).

The concept, procedure for recognition, evaluation and accounting of fixed assets, in accordance with international standards, is governed by IAS 16 “Fixed Assets”. According to the definition of IFRS 16, fixed assets are objects used in the production and supply of goods, works, services, or for administrative purposes and which are expected to be used during more than one reporting period. Based on the definition, production and so-called corporate non-current assets, capital investments fall into the composition of fixed assets.

In addition, in the world practice of accounting there are other definitions of the category "fixed assets". Thus, according to GAAP (General Accepted Accounting Principles) of the United States, fixed assets are considered to be tangible assets that are acquired and held by an enterprise for the purpose of use in the production process and sale of products, to ensure the sale of goods, the provision of services, or for other business purposes other than resale.

Table 2.

table 2

Comparative characteristics of the definitions of the concept and methods of accounting for fixed assets in accordance with RAS 6/01, IAS 16 and US GAAP

	PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets"	IFRS(IAS) 16 "Fixed assets"	US GAAP	Comparative characteristics
Criteria for recognition of property, plant and equipment	- use in production, in the performance of work, the provision of services; – use of the object for a long period (over 12 months); - resale of the object is not expected; – the object is able to bring economic benefits in the future	- there is a high probability of obtaining future economic benefits from use; – the value of the asset can be measured reliably; - use for the production of goods and services; - it is supposed to use the object for more than one period	- are used in the process of production and sale of products, provision of services or other economic purposes; - have a service life of more than one year; - participate in the process of generating income indirectly	the criteria for recognition of fixed assets in RAS are close in essence to international ones, they lack only the criterion reliability of estimates
Initial cost	at original cost	at original cost	at original cost	borrowing costs are included in cost when applying the alternative approach under IAS 23. US GAAP classifies as borrowing costs only interest on loans that must be capitalized in accordance with the established procedure
Follow-up evaluation	- at initial cost - at revalued cost	- at initial cost - at revalued cost (revaluation at fair value)	- at initial cost	PBU 6/01 does not prescribe the measurement of impairment losses. U.S. GAAP does not allow valuation above original value.

Useful life (SPI)		useful life is determined by the organization itself	useful life is determined by the organization itself	In IFRS 16, the IFR is reviewed regularly during the life of the asset; according to RAS, the IFR is reviewed only during reconstruction or modernization
Depreciation	four ways - linear, - declining balance,	three methods are provided: - uniform accrual, - declining balance, - method of the sum of products	Four methods: - linear - double declining balance - by the sum of numbers of years of useful life, - in proportion to the volume of production	in IFRS 16, the method used is reviewed throughout the useful life; according to PBU 6/01, the depreciation method is applied throughout the life of the asset. Double declining balance depreciation in US GAAP is derived from the declining balance method in IFRS when a factor of two is applied
Amortized cost	difference between original and salvage value	initial cost	the difference between the original cost and the realizable value of the fixed asset	the procedure for determining depreciable cost does not match

Regulation of the concept of "fixed assets", the order of reflection in accounting, their movement and documentation is carried out in accordance with legislative and regulatory acts, which, depending on the legal force, can be divided into 4 levels of legal regulation: legislative, regulatory, methodological and organizational and distribution .

At the legislative level, the components are laws and other by-laws, namely:

• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "Civil Code of the Russian Federation Part 2" dated January 26, 1996, No. 14-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Part Two)" dated 05.08.00, No. 117-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Accounting" dated February 23, 1996 No. 129-FZ;
• Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Financial Lease (Leasing)" dated October 29, 1998, No. 164-FZ.

The regulatory level includes:

• Regulation on accounting and financial reporting in the Russian Federation, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated July 27, 1998 No. 34n;
• Regulation on accounting "Accounting for fixed assets" PBU 6/01, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n;
• Chart of accounts for financial and economic activities of organizations and instructions for its use, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated October 31, 2000 No. 94n.

At the level of methodological regulation of accounting for fixed assets, the following documents are used:

• Guidelines for accounting of fixed assets, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of December 24, 2010 No. 186n;
• All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OKOF), approved. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994, No. 359;
• Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups" dated 01.01.2002 No. 1;
• Decree of the State Statistics Committee of Russia "On approval of unified forms of primary accounting documentation for accounting for fixed assets" dated 21.01.2003

In addition, depending on the industry in which a particular business entity operates, this list may be supplemented by intra-industry regulations (for example, when accounting for fixed assets in agriculture, the Guidelines for accounting for fixed assets in agricultural organizations are used, approved by Order of the Ministry of Agriculture RF dated 19.06.2002 No. 559, Methodological recommendations on accounting for production costs and calculation of the cost of products (works, services) in agriculture, approved by Order of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation dated 06.06.2003 No. 792).

At the organizational and distribution level, there are intra-company acts that regulate aspects of accounting for fixed assets that are not legally established (an example of such documents can be the Instruction on the procedure for writing off fixed assets that have become unusable for JSC Russian Railways, approved by order of JSC Russian Railways).

In international practice, in addition to IAS 16, when accounting for property, plant and equipment, other standards should be taken into account: IAS 17 Leases, IAS 23 Borrowing Costs, IAS 36 Impairment of Assets ".

According to IFRS rules, non-current assets that are real estate, the economic benefits of which will be received by renting out, and not by use in the main activity and not by sale, are investment property. Such immovable property is also accounted for separately in accordance with IAS 40 Investment Property. Thus, from an IFRS point of view, leased property is not property, plant and equipment and is not covered by IAS 16. The same applies to land whose purpose is not defined - they must qualify as investment property.

Fixed assets are a huge amount of labor instruments, which, despite their economic homogeneity, differ in their intended purpose and service life. The variety of types and elements of fixed assets of the enterprise determines the need for their preliminary classification in order to account for and ensure their effective management. To keep records of fixed assets, they are classified according to a number of criteria: by type, purpose, groups that take into account the specifics of production purposes, relations with sectors of the national economy, etc.

Possible types and groups of fixed assets, depending on the classification features, are presented in Table. 3.

Table 3

Existing classifications of fixed assets given by various authors in the economic literature

No. p/ P	Classification sign	Types of fixed assets
	Depending on the organization's rights to fixed assets	– own fixed assets
		– fixed assets in trust management
		- fixed assets for economic management
		– leased fixed assets
		– fixed assets received under a leasing agreement
	Role in the production process by group	Active	Passive
		- cars and equipment – vehicles - tools – stock and accessories – other fixed assets	- building – buildings - transmission devices

	Depending on the intended purpose and the functions performed in the process production	- production fixed assets (machines, tools, buildings of the main and auxiliary workshops and other fixed assets, use which are aimed at systematic obtaining profit as the main goal of activity organizations)
		- non-production fixed assets (objects health care, physical culture and sports, housing and communal and socio-cultural spheres)
	According to the degree of use in production and economic activities 12	- fixed assets in stock
		– fixed assets in operation
		- fixed assets for conservation
		- fixed assets under repair
		- fixed assets at the stage of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction, modernization and partial liquidation
	By sectors of the national economy	- industry
		- Agriculture
		– trade and public catering
		– housing and communal services, etc.
	By groups of fixed assets	- building
		– buildings
		– working and power machines and equipment
		- measuring and control instruments and devices
		- Computer Engineering
		– vehicles
		- tool
		- production and household equipment
		– working, productive and breeding cattle
		- perennial plantations
		- on-farm roads
		– capital investments for radical land improvement
		– land plots and objects of nature management

The division of fixed assets according to the degree of use is necessary to obtain information on the loading and efficiency of the use of fixed assets, the possibilities of replacing worn-out assets and the correct calculation of depreciation for inclusion in production costs.

The classification of fixed assets by groups is of great importance for enterprises, because the ratio of individual groups of fixed assets in their total volume represents the specific (production) structure of fixed assets. For management purposes, business entities are not indifferent to which of the groups of fixed assets are invested, because. they are interested in an optimal increase in the proportion of the active part of the funds that serve the decisive sectors of production.

Fixed assets in their totality form the production and technical base and determine the production capacity of the enterprise. Depending on the sphere, industry and the specifics of the business activities of the enterprise, the share of fixed assets necessary for the implementation of activities varies. The provision of fixed assets of commercial organizations of the Russian Federation by type of economic activity is presented in Table. 4 and in fig. one.

Table 4

Specific structure of fixed assets of commercial organizations
in the Russian Federation by type of economic activity as of December 31, 2010

Total fixed assets

of them:

building

structures

cars and equipment

vehicles

other types of fixed assets

million rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

mln rub.

in % of the total

agriculture and forestry

mining

manufacturing industries

production of electricity, gas

construction

wholesale and retail trade

hotels and restaurants

transport and communication

financial activities

real estate transactions

healthcare

provision of other communal and social

A large share of fixed assets in 2010 accounted for wholesale and retail trade (26%), transport and communications (24%) and mining (17%).

Fig.1. Provision with fixed assets of commercial organizations of the Russian Federation
as of December 31, 2010 by type of economic activity (according to Table 4)

According to the Federal State Statistics Service, the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at the book value at the end of 2010 amounted to 93,185.612 billion rubles. 17 . At the same time, the value of fixed assets increases every year. The dynamics of changes in the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation since 1999 is presented in Table. 5 and in fig. 2.

Table 5

Dynamics of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at full book value since 1998 to 2010 (based on the materials of the Federal State Statistics Service 17)

years	accounting price fixed assets at the end of the year billion rubles	Price index, %	Price fixed assets in comparable prices, billion rubles	VC previous year	AT % by 1998

Rice. 2. Dynamics of the availability of fixed assets in the Russian Federation at book value in comparable prices for the period 1999-2010 (according to Table 5)

The cost of fixed assets, according to the state statistics authorities, in 2010 compared to 1998 increased 11 times.

Summarizing the above, it can be noted that the value of fixed assets is a significant part of the total value of national wealth and property of each specific organization in particular. Due to the long-term use of fixed assets in the activities of business entities, they have a significant impact on the financial performance of the organization. Depreciation deductions act as an internal source of financing for the organization's costs and contribute to a change in the structure of assets.

These factors determine the significance of the correct and reliable reflection in accounting and reporting of information on the cost, availability and movement of fixed assets.

In relation to fixed assets, there are still many unresolved problems, the main reason for which can be considered the lack of a unified terminology and definition of the concept of "fixed assets". An analysis of literary sources and a study of the definitions of various authors made it possible to conclude that in the general economic theory, scientists economists considered this category as fixed capital, for the purposes of economic analysis, the concept of “fixed assets” is used, in accounting the definition of the concept of “fixed assets” is given. All existing definitions are reduced to the definition of fixed assets as a set of material assets used in the activities of the organization for a long time, or to the understanding of fixed assets as money invested in fixed assets. However, in our opinion, the separation of the natural-material form from their value expression is not entirely correct.

Due to the existing differences between domestic accounting regulations and international standards, some problems also arise when reflecting fixed assets in accounting.

Firstly, PBU 6/01 "Accounting for fixed assets" does not provide for an alternative approach that involves the assessment of fixed assets at their fair value, so there is a problem in accounting for fixed assets - this is revaluation. At present, due to the continuous use of fixed assets and the rise in the price level, the cost of their reproduction is increasing. However, most organizations do not revaluate fixed assets and, although in conditions of inflation, the real value of fixed assets increases significantly, the change in the value of the reflection is not reflected in accounting and reporting.

Secondly, in international accounting, IAS 36 “Impairment of Assets” is applied. In the practice of Russian accounting, depreciation is not recognized, however, there is no prohibition on it. Therefore, organizations can use it, but they do not do it because of the fear that by depreciating the asset, they will break the generally accepted tradition and cause disapproval of the tax authorities.

Thirdly, at present, by analogy with international financial reporting standards, Russian legislation allows organizations to independently determine the useful life of fixed assets. Although such an important factor determining the useful life of an asset as obsolescence under IAS 16 is not taken into account in PBU 6/01, despite the fact that at present the acceleration of scientific and technological progress plays a decisive role in the development of the economy .

Fourth, in accordance with IFRS, the initial cost of fixed assets should be increased by the amount of the reserve for future expenses for the liquidation of the object. According to PBU 8/2010 "Estimated Liabilities, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets", the company's future liquidation expenses meet the criteria for estimated liabilities. PBU 6/01, in turn, provides for the possibility of including other costs directly related to the acquisition, construction and manufacture of fixed assets in the initial cost of objects. But it should be noted that in practice, nevertheless, reserves for the decommissioning and liquidation of fixed assets are recognized by organizations quite rarely.

In addition, at present, in the theory and practice of accounting, there is an imperfection of the regulatory and legislative framework, manifested in the ambiguity of wording, in the absence of instructions and recommendations for resolving complex and controversial issues, in an extremely rapid change in the composition and content of regulatory legal acts. Russian accounting for fixed assets, against the background of international standards, is less flexible, since it does not contribute to bringing accounting indicators to actual market values ​​and economic benefits of enterprises.

Sources:
1. Smith A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. [Text] M.: Os-89, 1997. P.56.
2. Capital: The quintessence of all volumes of "Capital" in one book [Text] / K. Marx; per. with him. S. Alekseeva; comp., foreword and adj. Y. Borchardt. Ed. 3rd, rev. Moscow: KomKniga, 2010, p. 174.
3. Economics [Text] / per. from English. Pelyavsky O.L. 18th ed. Samuelson P.E., Nordhaus V.D. M.: VIL-YAMS, 2008.
4. Economics of the enterprise (in diagrams, tables, calculations): textbook [Text] / ed. prof. VC. Sklyarenko, V.M. Prudnikov. M.: INFRA-M, 2010. S. 67.
5. Financial and credit dictionary. V.2 [Text], ed. A.F. Gorbuzov. M.: Finance and statistics, 2005. S. 385
6. Shchadilova S. N. Fundamentals of accounting. [Text] M.: Delo i Service, 2007. S. 32.
7. Modern Economic Dictionary [Text] under. ed. B.A. Roizberg, L.Sh. Lozovsky, E.B. Starodub-tsev. M.: INFRA, 2006. S. 112.
8. Khoroshkov S.I., Bukiya V.I. Problems of determining the economic essence of fixed assets in the light of the implementation of the state program of reforming accounting [Text] // Questions of modern science and practice. University. IN AND. Vernadsky. - 2008. - No. 1 (11). - S. 236.
9. Regulation on accounting "Accounting for fixed assets" PBU 6/01 [Electronic resource]: approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
10. Krupina N.N., Bartkova N.N. Accounting for depreciation of fixed assets: Russian and international standards [Electronic resource] // International Accounting - 2010 - No. 16. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
11. Peteneva E.N. The choice of accounting system by the company [Electronic resource] // International Accounting - 2007 - No. 12. Access and reference-legal system "ConsultantPlus".
12. Accounting: a textbook for the Training and Certification Program for Professional Accountants. Basic course [Text] / pod.gen. ed. V.V. Patrov. M.: BINFA Publishing House, 2008. S. 24.
13. Enterprise economics: textbook [Text] / ed. prof. ON THE. Safronov. M.: "Jurist", 2008. S. 52.
14. Ionova A.F. , Selezneva N.N. Financial analysis: textbook. [Text]. M.: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2008. S. 213.
15. Belova E.L. Accounting for fixed assets in commercial organizations [Text] // Modern accounting. - 2006. - No. 6. - P. 72.
16. All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OKOF) [Electronic resource]: approved. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994, No. 359. Access and reference legal system "ConsultantPlus"
17. Official website of the Federal State Statistics Service URL: www.gks.ru

Evgeny Malyar

# business vocabulary

Definition of the term, characteristics and examples

Fixed assets are the main value of any enterprise. They are the sources of its profit. Unlike current assets, fixed assets serve for many production cycles.

Article navigation

• Features of fixed assets
• Examples of fixed and working capital
• Place of fixed assets in the balance sheet
• Intangible means of production
• Types of intangible assets
• Composition and structure of fixed assets
• Profitability of fixed assets
• New classifier 2019

Production facilities are the main material value owned by each commercial structure. The owner of the company may have different property, sometimes very expensive, but if it does not bring profit, it will remain a set of luxury items that only amuse vanity.

To generate income, fixed and current assets of the enterprise are used. At the same time, unlike assets that are spent in one cycle, equipment, buildings, transport and infrastructure last a long time. This is the main production assets of the organization. What is it in terms of economics and accounting? The article will consider the types of fixed assets of the enterprise and their classification as of 2019.

Features of fixed assets

Definition of fixed assets of production:

Fixed assets are non-current assets that have material (expressed in money) value and meet the criteria below.

• They are used for the purpose of commodity reproduction, the provision of services, or for management needs (non-production units, such as furniture, a computer, an office building, and other objects that are not directly involved in the labor process, can also be classified as fixed assets).
• The service life is over a year.
• Not intended for resale.
• Able to generate income.
• They have a significant cost (from 40,000 rubles).

In addition to this formulation, which has an exclusively accounting meaning, there are others that allow you to look at fixed assets from the point of view of:

• Legal. For this property, the appointed employees of the organization are legally liable.
• Economic. Fixed assets are part of the fixed capital invested in the enterprise, and their value dynamically transforms into cost as they are used. At the same time, the accrued depreciation will be spent on the resumption of depreciating production capacities in a targeted manner.

It should be noted that the economic characteristics of fixed assets have a twofold interpretation: static (as objects that are constantly on the balance sheet for a long time) and dynamic (due to constantly changing value).

Examples of fixed and working capital

Fixed assets are called non-current assets because they give part of their value to the goods indirectly and gradually, through depreciation charges. The machines themselves and other equipment, workshop buildings or pipelines formally remain in their places.

Materials, products that are used for assembly, energy costs, and everything else that is part of the cost of a product (Henry Ford called it a fabricated product) is a current asset. It participates in only one production cycle, and is acquired for this purpose.

Using the example of a car factory, it is probably easiest to explain the difference between current and non-current assets (fixed assets of production):

• The assembly line belongs to the OS.
• Assembly units purchased from third-party suppliers (tyres, engines, bumpers, sheet metal, etc.) are current assets.

Place of fixed assets in the balance sheet

All current accounts of the enterprise fall into the asset or liability of the balance sheet - there are simply no other options.

Since the essence of each means of production lies in its ability to make a profit, this means that it belongs to the active part.

Intangible means of production

Despite their name, intangible assets (IA) have nothing to do with the philosophy of idealism. They are a means of making a profit, like any property related to fixed assets. Their main features:

1. Absence of material form. This position is debatable: in many cases, some manifestation of materiality is present. A computer program can be written to disk, and copyright is in the form of a paper document. On the other hand, it is not the form that matters, but the content.
2. Possibility of use for the purpose of production, sale and management. There are no questions here: even such an intangible concept as business reputation (good name, goodwill) contributes to business and increases trade turnover, all other things being equal.
3. Operation for a year or more. As a rule, the value of an intangible asset for commercial success is high, which leads to its high price and long life.
4. Profitability. If the investment is unprofitable, it makes no practical sense.
5. Legality of design. The lack of documentary confirmation of the rights to own an intangible asset in most cases deprives the owner of the opportunity to use it.
6. Possibility of resale. The sign is also controversial, since the fixed asset (regardless of whether it is material or not) by definition is not intended for speculation - otherwise it is already a commodity. However, any OS is sometimes sold by their owners - they have the right to do so.

Types of intangible assets

Until relatively recently, a few decades ago, the composition of intangible assets was limited to copyrights, brands and several other types of property fixed on paper. Now their list has expanded significantly. In total, it includes the rights to:

• use of property owned by other owners;
• exploitation of natural wealth and resources;
• use of registered trade and commercial marks (brands);
• economic application of inventions, results of scientific research, technological achievements;
• publication and reproduction of works of culture and art;

It should be noted in particular that intangible assets do not include the types of property themselves (works of art, computer programs or scientific research), but the rights to their commercial exploitation.

Intangible assets also include some types of costs incurred in the course of documenting (legal entity, patent, etc.), but only if the money was paid during the preparation of the title package. Then the funds can be offset by part of the authorized capital. Subsequent costs are included in general business expenses.

Composition and structure of fixed assets

The fixed assets of the enterprise need, like other property of the enterprise, to be systematized. The following signs can serve as criteria for this “layout on the shelves”.

Natural-material. It involves the division of all objects into the following categories:

1. Real estate. This includes various structures, workshops and buildings listed on the balance sheet.
2. Sophisticated technological equipment and power plants.
3. Instrumentation and control devices (measuring equipment, automation control devices, etc.)
4. Computers and expensive printers and copiers. It is easy to find out from what amount the reckoning of accounting objects to fixed assets starts: at present, the lower limit is 40 thousand rubles.
5. Means of transport (automobile and any other).
6. Expensive tools, equipment and inventory. Anything under $40,000 is treated as low value property.
7. Plantations of agricultural crops are perennial.
8. Livestock intended to maintain and increase livestock (breeding).
9. Road facilities (on-farm) and other infrastructure.

Comprehensive indicators of the condition of fixed assets depend on the following factors:

• Provision of production with modern technical means.
• The structure of management and the degree of its branching (diversification), the degree of concentration.
• Capital-labor ratio and its inverse capital intensity of production.
• Indicators of movement (updating) of fixed assets.
• Additional conditions depending on the geographical location, the method of reproduction of fixed assets, industry specifics, including the structure of capital investments.

The criterion for participation in production. PF can also be non-production, that is, they are not directly involved in the manufacturing process of the product. However, they are needed to provide social infrastructure. A large enterprise often cannot do without a first-aid post, and sometimes its own clinic, canteen, sports complex, swimming pool or kindergarten.

Production assets, on the other hand, perform direct functions, and the result of their operation is a commercial product released to the market. In turn, they are divided into active ones, that is, those that, conditionally speaking, create goods from raw materials, and passive ones, which play an auxiliary role.

The passive part of fixed assets serves the active part. It is the infrastructure that ensures the successful operation of the entire enterprise.

For example, a fleet of powerful trucks belonging to a cement plant is needed to deliver the flask (chalk mineral raw materials) from the quarries. Without them, production cannot function, as well as without a plant management building, a boiler room or a cooling tower.

Such objects are considered passive. The higher the share of the active part in the total structure of fixed assets, the more efficient the business is considered.

Age. As a general rule, according to which objects are classified as fixed assets, the service life is at least a year. It is clear that there are more long-term investments. Age groups differ at roughly five-year intervals. They are indicated in the OF Classifier, which will be discussed a little later.

Profitability of fixed assets

The purpose of the fixed assets of production is to make a profit. The management of the enterprise needs to evaluate in numerical terms the degree of ability of the acquired assets to perform this task. To successfully conduct business, it is not enough just to say that some equipment is good, but it is profitable to use it.

The performance indicators of fixed assets are summarized in a generally accepted system. It includes the coefficients described below.

Return on assets ratio. The economic essence of the indicator is to determine the ratio of revenue for manufactured products to the total value of non-current assets:

Where:

B - annual revenue (volume of domestic product in monetary terms);

Return on assets (it is also turnover or resource productivity) shows how much each ruble invested in non-current assets “produces” goods. Thus, for the evaluation purpose, the extensive factor (the amount of investment in fixed assets) is converted into the intensive factor (financial result in a share or percentage form).

Capital ratio. The value of this coefficient is the inverse of the return on assets. The formula is almost the same, but the numerator and denominator are reversed:

Where:
FU - capital intensity ratio;
FO - capital productivity ratio;
OF - the average annual cost of fixed assets;
B - annual revenue (volume of domestic product in monetary terms).

According to this indicator, one can judge how much money was spent to receive revenue equal to one ruble.

OF profitability ratio. In this formula, very similar in appearance to the one by which the return on assets is determined, the place of annual revenue is replaced by annual profit.

Where:
ROF - profitability ratio of fixed assets;
P - the annual profit of the enterprise in monetary terms;
OF - the average annual cost of fixed assets.

As is clear from this simple mathematical expression, the profitability ratio of fixed assets gives an unambiguous idea of ​​their ability to make a profit on each invested ruble.

Ideally, the more expensive non-current assets, the more profitable they are. Practice shows that this is not always the case, so the profitability of fixed assets must be constantly monitored. If it falls, compensatory economic measures should be taken.

New classifier 2019

The classifier should be mentioned in connection with such a necessary measure as the depreciation of fixed assets. Deductions to the fund intended for the renewal of fixed assets as they wear out (to account 02) determine the cost. The monthly amount at an equal price of the asset depends on the time of full depreciation, that is, the useful life of the object. It cannot be arbitrarily assigned.

The All-Russian classifier, in force since 2017 (OK 013-2014), is a reference book in which possible asset options are divided into categories with decoding of names. Of course, the management of the enterprise has a certain degree of freedom, since the time frame for each of the ten groups provides for a “fork”: for the first and second - a year, for the subsequent ones - more.

To make it more convenient to search, each item of fixed assets has its own class, and the positions are assigned an alphanumeric cipher (Classifier code).

Classifier 2019

Brief summary. Fixed assets are the main value of any enterprise. They are the sources of its profit.

Fixed assets are often referred to as fixed assets, meaning the amount of the book value of objects on the balance sheet in monetary terms. In essence, these concepts are identical.

Information- information about something, regardless of the form of their presentation. 1. The concept of information technology. Application of information technologies in jurisprudence.

Information Technology(IT, from the English informationtechnology, IT) - a wide class of disciplines and areas of activity related to technologies for creating, managing and processing data, including the use of computer technology. IT itself requires complex training, high initial costs and knowledge-intensive technology. Their implementation should begin with the creation of software, the formation of information flows in specialist training systems.

The main features of modern IT:

computer processing of information according to specified algorithms;

storage of large amounts of information on machine media;

transmission of information over long distances in a limited time.

Application of information technologies in jurisprudence.

Key features of legal information systems.

As already noted, the ability to compactly store a large amount of information is one of the most important advantages of any computer technology. Legal information is indeed characterized by large volumes. Only the informational legal complex ConsultantPlus: Expert monthly receives more than two thousand acts into the system. Entering two thousand documents into the database every month is not difficult. But if, at the same time, the input documents are connected by hundreds and thousands of links both with documents entered earlier and among themselves, if new revisions, notes, comments, etc. are being prepared for them, then the process of parallel processing of such a large number of documents becomes a serious problem. To solve it, the software technology must be well thought out and linked to the organization of the work of dozens of people in the information department of the developer company.

Basic search and service capabilities

There are three main types of search in computer help systems:

search by document details,

full text search,

search by specialized classifiers.

Under search by details refers to the search by number, type of document, adopting body, date of adoption, etc. However, it is applicable only in situations where the details of a particular document are precisely known.

Full text search(automatic search for words from the text of the document)

This type of search is based on automatic text processing. When a request is made to search for those documents where a specific word occurs, the entire array of documents is automatically searched and all those documents where this word occurs are selected. There are fast algorithms for such a search, when, at the initial input of each document, all the words found in it are entered into a common dictionary, and later, when searching for any word from the dictionary, you can instantly get a list of all documents where it occurs.

Computer business games - A well-designed computer business game is an excellent training tool and simulator for novice lawyers, especially students, and leads to assimilation of the material much faster than studying hundreds of pages of text at a desk.

But in order for any student of the Faculty of Law to be able to participate in a dialogue (interactive) mode in a business game, and even receive practical comments and tips that teach during the game, as in the design of expert systems, experienced lawyers and programmers had to work hard , systems engineers.

The library of computer business games was developed by an interuniversity research team on the basis of the association UPPIKS (Educational Industrial Legal Information Computer Systems) of the YurInfoR Center of the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University. Lomonosov!] Such a “movement towards” will prepare a new generation of lawyers capable of using computers and computer technologies in their work.

In practice, information complexes are usually used, which include not one software tool, but a set of software tools combined into a system both software and hardware. But the main role always remains with the person.

A typical example is information complexes for notaries, which necessarily include the following software:

ATP on legislation;

Text editors;

Databases for storing and searching documents;

Software tools (DBMS) for journals, registers, books, archives, statistical reporting;

Electronic communication systems (fax-modem, e-mail).

2. Different approaches to the definition of the concept of "information".

In the literature, you can find quite a lot of definitions of the term "information", reflecting different approaches to the interpretation of this concept. In "Federal Law of the Russian Federation of July 27, 2006 N 149-FZ On Information, Information Technologies and Information Protection" ( http://www.rg.ru/2006/07/29/informacia-dok.html) the following definition of this term is given: "information - information (messages, data) regardless of the form of their presentation." The explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Ozhegov gives 2 definitions of the word "information":

Information about the surrounding world and the processes taking place in it, perceived by a person or a special device.

Messages informing about the state of affairs, about the state of something. (Scientific-technical and newspaper information, mass media - press, radio, television, cinema).

In computer science, the following definition of this term is most often used: Information is conscious information about the world that is the object of storage, transformation, transmission and use. Information is knowledge expressed in signals, messages, news, notifications, etc. Every person in the world is surrounded by a sea of ​​information of various kinds.

It is possible to distinguish at least four different approaches to the definition of the concept of "information".

In the first, "ordinary", the word "information" is used as a synonym for the words: information, knowledge, messages.

In the second, "cybernetic" (cyber - steering, cybernetics - the science of control), the word "information" is used to characterize the control signal transmitted over the communication line.

In the third, "philosophical", the word "information" is associated with the concepts of interaction, reflection, cognition.

In the fourth, "probabilistic", the word "information" is introduced as a measure of uncertainty reduction and allows information to be quantified.

3. Properties and types of information. What are information resources?

Information can be in the form:

texts, drawings, drawings, photographs;

light or sound signals;

radio waves;

electrical and nerve impulses;

magnetic records;

gestures and facial expressions;

smells and taste sensations;

chromosomes, through which the signs and properties of organisms are inherited, etc.

The main types of information in terms of its form of presentation, ways of encoding and storing it, which is of the greatest importance for computer science, are:

graphic or figurative- the first type, for which a method of storing information about the world around was implemented in the form of rock paintings, and later in the form of paintings, photographs, diagrams, drawings on paper, canvas, marble, and other materials depicting pictures of the real world;

sound- the world around us is full of sounds and the problem of their storage and replication was solved with the invention of sound recording devices in 1877 (see, for example, the history of sound recording on the site - http://radiomuseum.ur.ru/index9.html); its variety is music information- for this type, a method of encoding was invented using special characters, which makes it possible to store it similarly to graphic information;

textual- a way to encode human speech with special characters - letters, and different peoples have different languages ​​​​and use different sets of letters to display speech; this method became especially important after the invention of paper and printing;

numerical- quantitative measure of objects and their properties in the surrounding world; acquired especially great importance with the development of trade, economy and money exchange; similarly to textual information, to display it, the coding method is used with special characters - numbers, and the coding systems (numbers) can be different;

video information- a way to preserve "live" pictures of the world around us, which appeared with the invention of cinema.

There are also types of information for which no methods of coding and storage have yet been invented - this is tactile information transmitted by sensations, organoleptic, transmitted by smells and tastes, etc.

Information properties

Information has the following properties:

authenticity

• accuracy

  value

  timeliness

  intelligibility

  availability

  brevity, etc.

From the point of view of informatics, the following general qualitative properties seem to be the most important: objectivity, reliability, completeness, accuracy, relevance, usefulness, value, timeliness, understandability, accessibility, brevity, etc.

Reliability of information - Information is reliable if it reflects the true state of affairs.

Completeness of information - Information can be called complete if it is sufficient for understanding and decision making.

Information Accuracy - determined by the degree of its proximity to the real state of the object, process, phenomenon, etc.

Relevance of information – importance for the present time, topicality, urgency. Only timely received information can be useful.

Usefulness (value) of information - Utility can be assessed in relation to the needs of its specific consumers and is evaluated according to the tasks that can be solved with its help.

Informational resources- according to the legislation of the Russian Federation - separate documents and separate arrays of documents, documents and arrays of documents in information systems: libraries, archives, funds, data banks, other types of information systems.